Another great system of Chinese philosophy was Taoism. Its founder, a contemporary of Confucius, the philosopher Lao Tzu (an old teacher) wrote the Tao Te Ching (Book of the Way and Virtue).

The original idea of ​​the philosophy of Taoism is the doctrine of Dao. Tao is the universal all-penetrating fundamental principle of existence and at the same time the Way, Reason, Truth, Grace. Tao is untranslatable and undefinable in the way we are accustomed to. It is a boundless void endowed with equally boundless information. Lao Tzu wrote: “Tao is incorporeal and devoid of form, and inexhaustible in application... Tao is the deepest gate of birth... Man follows the earth. The earth follows the sky. Heaven follows Tao, and Tao follows naturalness... Tao is hidden and has no name. But only he knows how to help everything and lead everything to perfection.

In early Taoism, the paired categories of Tao and Te came to the fore, to which the main Taoist treatise “ Tao Te Ching. It presents the Tao in two main forms:

1) lonely, separated from everything, permanent, inactive, at rest, inaccessible to perception and verbal-conceptual expression, nameless, generating “absence / non-existence”, giving rise to Heaven and Earth,

2) all-encompassing, all-penetrating, like water; changing with the world, acting, accessible to “passage”, perception and cognition, expressed in the “name / concept”, sign and symbol, generating “presence / being”, which is the ancestor of the “darkness of things”.

According to Lao Tzu, Tao determines the natural rhythm of events in the world. Tao precedes the world of formalized things ("yu") and refers to the unmanifest being ("u"). Having no external certainty, Tao is identified with emptiness. However, this emptiness is not nothing. This emptiness has an inexhaustible potency in the generation of formalized things (“yu”). Understanding the non-originality of any certainty initiates the dialectical ideas of spontaneous change (“everything that exists changes by itself”) and the mutual transition of opposites (“transformation into the opposite - the movement of Tao”). Everything is born from Tao. Lao Tzu depicts this generative action of Tao as a multi-stage deployment: first, Tao gives rise to a global substrate - “chi” particles, then polar principles are born - “yin” and “yang”, then a great triad arises - Heaven, Man, Earth, and already then all concrete things arise from this triad - “yu”.

Lao Tzu taught that man should not interfere with the natural course of events. “Whoever acts,” he said, “will fail. Anyone who owns something will lose. That is why the sage is inactive and does not fail.” So, it is expedient to be inactive in life. How to live?

The main principle of Taoism is following the Tao, nature things, achieving a state of oneness with the cosmic whole, a state of free unity between the entire human world and the world of nature. The concept of "naturalness" (spontaneous realization of the true nature) is complemented by the concept of "non-action" (wu-wei, wu-shi) - non-violation of the law of naturalness. Taoism pays great attention to the theory and practice of human psychic self-regulation. Taoism has formulated a number of moral and political postulates that everyone must comply with - simple people, wise men, politicians, rulers.

Man, Taoist philosophers say, is the flight of an arrow: it moves where the arrow's hand sent it, and its movement depends on the degree of tension of the bowstring, on air resistance, on obstacles in its path. Of course, the direction of the arrow's flight can change: a strong wind blew, it started to rain, or it crashed into something, but is the arrow capable of independently changing the direction of its own movement, independently deviating in one direction or another, flying back or not flying at all? Therefore, human life also flies in the direction that is given to it by the factors and conditions that form it, the external parameters and circumstances that determine it, and it cannot arbitrarily change this direction. The path of life, set by the totality of external forces, is called Tao. This path is present in any thing, since every object of the world and its existence, like a person, is also the result of all possible factors. And the whole universe has its own Tao. If we add absolutely all the things of our world, all the forces acting in it, all the causes and effects in a grandiose and immense interaction and integrity, we get a single path - the Tao of our universe.

The main provisions of the ethics of early Taoism:

the goal is to follow the path indicated by nature;

principle - "non-action";

the essence of happiness as the good of the people is in the return to equality, simplicity and ignorance of the "golden age", and happiness as the good of the sage is in moderation, tranquility, closeness to nature.

The main interest of Chinese philosophy is the ethical regulation of relations between people in society.

A well-known Chinese saying says: "Taoism is the heart, Buddhism is the bones, Confucianism is the flesh" (dao xin, fo gu, zhu rou). In this formula, all three famous Chinese teachings find their place, forming the continuity of the entire Chinese tradition.

Questions and tasks for self-control

1. Describe the cultural and historical prerequisites for the emergence of philosophical thought in China and India.

2. What are the features of ancient Eastern philosophy?

3. How and why is ancient Indian philosophy called?

4. What is "karma" and "brahman"?

5. The role of the concepts of "dao", "yang", "yin", "qi" in ancient Chinese philosophy.

6. What are the causes of social misfortunes, from the point of view of Confucius?

7. How does Confucianism suggest harmonizing social life and making it prosperous?

8. What are the basic principles of the heavenly order that

Confucius?

Lecture four. ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY

1. From mythology to philosophy.

2. The main schools of ancient natural philosophy.

3. Greek enlightenment. Sophists and Socrates.

5. Aristotle

6. Roman philosophy (Epicurus, Stoicism)

Greek philosophy is often called ancient. But antiquity is the history and culture of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, so we can assume that ancient philosophy is essentially Greco-Roman. Philosophy in its purest form appeared among the ancient Greeks.

Ancient philosophy (first Greek, and then Roman) covers the period of its immediate existence from the 7th-6th centuries. BC e. to V-VI centuries. n. e.

The traditional Chinese teaching of Tao is a combination of philosophy and religion. The philosophy of Taoism combines different types of spiritual practices aimed at achieving true enlightenment. Knowing the Tao is life path and at the same time the very essence of life.

The birth of dosism

The doctrine of Tao is mysterious and contradictory. It is older than the Abrahamic religions, and the history of its origin is shrouded in mystery. The main teacher of ancient Chinese philosophy is Huang Di, the Yellow Emperor. Little information has been preserved about his life, it is contradictory and more like myths. He was the greatest sage of his time, and after the death of the physical body, he was reborn and gained eternal immortality.

The Yellow Emperor created the foundation of the Tao, but its main author is Lao Tzu. He wrote the famous treatise "Tao Te Ching", in which he outlined the basic concepts and ideas of the teaching. In the annals of ancient historians, information has been preserved about the meeting of Lao Tzu with Confucius, another great Teacher. Lao Tzu was older than Confucius and condemned his interpretation of philosophy and excessive obsession in preaching the ideas of the Tao.

The sage opposed his teaching, which spread everywhere, to Confucianism. It quickly became popular and the government did not like it. Lao Tzu had to flee the country, but his teachings could not be eradicated and Confucius had to put up with it.

The founders of the doctrine

In addition to the founders Huang Di and Lao Tzu, Chinese history has many followers of the Tao doctrine, who made a significant contribution to its development. Among them, a special place is occupied by:

1. Zhang Daoling. He founded the first school of Taoism, the Five Ladles of Rice, which later became the school of the First Teachers. For a long time he was its patriarch.
2. Ge Xuan. He wrote several philosophical treatises that formed the basis of the Lingbao school. He was revered by his followers no less than Lao Tzu himself.
3. Ge Chaofu. Founded the Lingbao school.
4. Kou Qianzhi. Under his influence, Taoism became the state religion. He carried out reforms in the School of the First Teachers, spreading its teachings throughout China.
5. Yang Si. He founded the Shangqing school, which focuses on the religious side of teaching.
6. Wang Chongyang. Founded the Quanzhen school.
7. Zhang Sanfeng. He created several systems of gymnastics used in spiritual practices.

The Eight Immortals occupy a special place in the development of Taoism. They are revered as deities, but were born ordinary people and joined the pantheon only after death. They patronize scientists, musicians and actors. Images of the Eight Immortals are often found in Chinese art and culture.

What is Dao?

The concept of Tao has no specific meaning. Even the famous Taoists who preach the doctrine cannot say exactly what its main idea is. The description given by Lao Tzu presents Tao as the beginning of everything. It is the source of life and life itself. The philosopher calls Tao the road of life, law and destiny, which is predetermined by the divine Tao.

In Taoism, there are two Tao. One of them has no name, its visual embodiment is Ouroboros. This is a universal dragon that devours its own tail. Ouroboros symbolizes the endless cycle of life. It is not given to a person to know the true essence of the life cycle, he can only contemplate. Tao with a name is available to people's consciousness - it symbolizes the finiteness of earthly life. Only one who has accepted the transience and temporality of his physical existence will know Tao and become a part of eternity.

Concepts and ideas

Taoism formed the basis of the state philosophy of China. Taoism defines the life guidelines of most modern Chinese. Its basic ideas have not changed since the time of Confucius, and remain relevant. Basic concepts of Taoism:

• Tao - the path, the impersonal force that controls all phenomena in the universe;
• Te - fortitude, a virtue that Tao endows the rulers of China;
• Qi is the life energy present in all beings;
• Wu-wei - the principle of non-action, according to which the best strategy of behavior is not to interfere with the natural course of things;
• Pu is the energy of empty objects.

The main essence of Taoism is the search for the true path. Taoist seeks to become one with the outside world, to gain enlightenment. Tao is infinite and multi-valued, it is the universal law of being. It is impossible to know it with the senses, only the enlightened one can comprehend the great law, which even Heaven follows. To know true happiness, a person must know the Tao and go through his life path consciously. After physical death, the immortal spirit merges with the Tao, but the task of a person is to achieve this merge during life. The teachings of Taoism help with this.

Every person walks the path of Tao, but does it unconsciously. In order to develop spiritually, people must adhere to the principle of non-action. It can be confused with indifference, but in fact it is the only truly conscious activity. Non-action teaches contemplation, knowledge of one's inner world, and through it - unity with the universe. The ideal of one who follows the path of Tao is immersion in the divine Tao. This can be achieved through many years of meditation practice, special gymnastics and breathing exercises.

Male and female manifestation of the Tao

The universe is based on two opposing forces: female Yin and male Yang. Yin is passive, soft, it slows down processes and keeps it in a state of rest. Yang is aggressive and bright, it helps to increase activity. The forces are filled with Qi energy, which gives life to all things and phenomena. All life processes in nature are governed by the interaction of these three principles.

All meditation practices are based on the interaction of Yin and Yang. If the energies are in balance, the person is healthy. If one of the energies increases disproportionately, the physical and mental state changes. A man with an excess of Yin becomes indecisive and indifferent. A woman who has accumulated too much Yang becomes aggressive and does not control her actions. Healing practices are aimed at restoring and maintaining the regulation of the feminine and masculine principles and saturating the body with Qi energy. The doctrine of the organization of space - Feng Shui is also based on the interaction of three principles.

Religious rites and deities

After the canonization of Lao Tzu, a complex hierarchy of good gods and evil demons formed the basis of Taoist philosophy. The list of the main gods recognized by different schools of Taoism is approximately the same. The main role in the pantheon is occupied by the Three pure deities, who succeeded each other and ruled the world for several time cycles. Behind them is the Jade Emperor - the ruler of human destinies. Almost equivalent to him is the Lady of the West. She opens the gates of life, releasing souls to earth and letting them into Heaven after death.

The Jade Emperor is ruled by the Seven Lords of the Stars of the Northern Dipper and the Six Lords of the Stars of the Southern Dipper. Next, follow the guardians of the cardinal points and the guardians of the elements. They have thousands of deities under their control, including those who joined the pantheon after earthly life.

Religious rites in Doasism are conditional. They are designed to unite people, pay respect to the deities and receive their blessing. The most popular rituals are held on the eve of the New Year and after it. Preparation for the holiday begins in January. People do spring cleaning in their homes, hang red decorations, give each other gifts and visit each other. The celebration of the New Year lasts for several days in a row. At this time, mass festivities are organized. The main character of the holiday - Chinese dragon, a symbol of the manifestation of Yang.

To protect the house from evil spirits and attract good luck, the Chinese put paper dragon masks in the windows, and above front door hang the symbol of Yin and Yang surrounded by trigrams. In order not to experience problems with money in the coming year, the Chinese give each other tangerines - a symbol financial well-being. To appease the patron gods, special treats are placed on the table for them. No one touches these dishes, and after the holidays they are taken to the temple or given to the poor. The more generous the treat was, the more luck awaits a person in the coming year.

With the penetration of Buddhism into China, national philosophy received a new impetus for development. Buddhism was adapted to the characteristics of Chinese culture and in turn influenced traditional philosophical ideas. The result was an eclectic tradition that absorbed the concepts of three schools: Confucianism (in the form that is known as neo-Confucianism), Taoism (both in religious and philosophical aspects) and Buddhism.

Taoism is fundamentally different from Confucianism in that it is based on personal comprehension and does not have a social component. A characteristic feature of Chinese national thinking is the ability to profess both teachings and apply them in practice, depending on life situation. As part of his personal life, a Chinese professes Taoism, but when it comes to social norms of behavior, he becomes a Confucian. Faced with the troubles and hardships of life, the Chinese turn to Mahayana Buddhism. In the national consciousness, the boundaries between teachings are blurred, and the wisdom of each of the three traditions is confirmed in Everyday life.

By and large, the traditions themselves do not require absolute loyalty from their adherents, and the Chinese profess a certain fusion of philosophical ideas that they put into practice in accordance with their needs and in relation to specific circumstances.

LAO TZU

The founder of Taoism, if such existed in reality, is Lao Tzu. but Lao Tzu translated as "Old Master/Philosopher" and means an honorary title rather than a name. It is generally accepted that he was an older contemporary of Confucius, but it is possible that he lived in an earlier period. historical era. In a short biography of Laozi, placed in the "Historical Notes" of Sima Qian (IIv. BC BC), he is called a native of the kingdom of Chu. His name is Li er, nickname is Dan. He allegedly served as an archivist at the Zhou court and met with Confucius. However, information about him is so fragmentary and contradictory that among historians there is no certainty at all in the reality of this person.

This idea is also suggested by the work attributed to him - "Tao Te Ching", which is a compilation of various sayings, some of which may belong to Lao Tzu, and others to his students. Thus, his name embodies a tradition rather than a specific historical character.

The Tao Te Ching is a collection of thematically grouped aphorisms. The title of the treatise can be defined as follows:

Dao- Way (of things);

de- emanation (manifestation) of Tao;

ching Can mean entity, but in this context a more accurate translation would be authority, belonging to the classical writings.

Accordingly, the name of the canonical Taoist scripture can be translated as "The Book of the Way and Its Manifestations."

There are many legends about the appearance of this book. I will bring one of them. Lao Tzu decided to travel on a black bull through the Hangu mountain pass in the western part of present-day Henan province. Once his servant Xu Tzu refused to accompany the philosopher further, demanding payment of a salary - one hundred coins a day for the entire time of service. Since they had been traveling for two hundred years, a huge sum was due to the servant. Lao Tzu, of course, had no money; then the servant complained about him to the caretaker of the outpost. The philosopher explained that he hired a servant on the condition that he would pay him in pure gold only after arriving in the country of Anxi. And Xu Tzu serves so long because, wanting to protect the servant from the destructive effects of time, the philosopher gave him a talisman of immortality.

After an explanation with the overseer of the outpost, Lao Tzu called the servant to him and, expressing dissatisfaction with his behavior, ordered him to bow his head. It was then that a talisman with words written in cinnabar fell out of the servant's mouth to the ground. As soon as this happened, the servant fell lifeless and turned into a skeleton - the laws of nature, suspended for two hundred years, immediately came into their own.

Struck by what he saw, the caretaker of the outpost began to beg Lao Tzu to return the life of the servant, promising to pay him with his money. The philosopher took pity, took the talisman and threw it on the servant's skeleton - the bones immediately joined together, overgrown with flesh, and a minute later the servant got up, not suspecting what was happening to him.

Parting with the caretaker of the outpost, Lao Tzu left him a brief summary of his teachings - until then, the book “Taodejing”, unknown to anyone, and he himself continued his way to the west on his black bull.

KEY CONCEPTS

DAO

Tao means Path comprehend the laws of nature, its laws. The Teaching encourages people to live according to natural laws, in accordance with the Tao, the universal harmonizing principle.

Before considering the personal aspects of comprehending Tao, it makes sense to mention Taoist cosmology, where Tao acts as the root cause and source of creation.

In this sense, Tao is interpreted as an absolute, indescribable category, an eternal universal principle. At the beginning of the Tao Te Ching it is said: "The Tao that can be spoken of is not the true Tao."

Chapter 42 of the treatise defines the sequence of creation: “Tao gives birth to one, one gives birth to two, two gives birth to three, three gives birth to all things. All things contain yin and carry yang, that interact in an inexhaustible flow of energy qi.

We will consider cosmogonic concepts in more detail below.

The creative function of Tao evokes associations with the Western concept of God the Creator, that is, an entity that, in a certain sense, stands above the result of its Creation. On the contrary, Tao acts as a spontaneous creative substance, or the basis of everything that exists.

Tao is referred to as "the beginning and mother of ten thousand things", that is, the essential basis of being. Manifestations of the Tao are spontaneous and effortless; giving birth to life, Tao does not own the objects of creation. It is the very embodiment of a natural process, not limited by anything, but producing a continuous series of ordinary, essentially limited things.

Tao is often compared to water. Water is gentle and flowing, but has the potential power to destroy stone drop by drop. To follow the Tao means to surrender naturally and without resistance to the flow of the river of life.

Lao Tzu compares Tao to bellows, which are initially empty, but provide a constant flow of air as they work. As the air goes out, they essentially remain the same size, and the air itself is not an integral part of them. However, without them, air supply would be impossible.

Dao is not being, not non-being. This is what is the root cause. In this respect, it is appropriate to compare it with the Buddhist concept shunyats(voids). Tao is universal, all-pervading and indestructible.

From the point of view of metaphysics, Tao is a silent source that gives rise to everything that exists, and at the same time the ultimate goal of any manifestation. It does not have a fixed substantive basis, but only ensures the manifestation and extinction of existence.

According to Taoist philosophy, movement is preceded by rest, and action is preceded by a state of rest; accordingly, Tao is the basis of any process. In itself, it is motionless, but it is the beginning of any movement. In this sense, Tao means absolute naturalness.

Parallels with Aristotle's "fixed prime mover" and Thomas Aquinas' "causeless cause" are appropriate here. The Tao is undeniably immovable and causeless. The only but fundamental difference is that Eastern philosophical systems do not personify the root cause, nor do they oppose the Creator to the objects of creation. What in the West is identified as God, in the East is called the natural source of all things. Awareness of personal Tao can be compared with the position of Mahayana Buddhism: Taoists mean awareness of the true essence of a person, and Buddhists talk about comprehending “Buddha nature”. As a Western equivalent, one can offer the idea of ​​the panentheists (“the world is in God”; however, God is not identified with nature, as the pantheists claimed).

At the same time, it should be remembered that Tao is not something subject to intellectual comprehension. A person can realize only the meaning that is not amenable to verbal expression.

DE

Tao is unknowable but omnipresent. What can be said is called de(manifested power). This concept demonstrates the Tao in action, manifests its potential energy in the objects of creation.

For a Taoist, this statement has more practical meaning than a metaphysical statement of the ontological features of the universe. If the subject or object follows the Tao (in other words, acts naturally), they are filled with energy (de). This does not mean some kind of coercive force, striving for violent changes, which would contradict the very essence of the teaching, but a natural force that fully reveals the natural potential. By analogy with water, Tao is like a stream, the strength of which is represented by de.

QI AND MIN

Literally word qi means breath and corresponds to the spirit, energy or life force contained in all things. In the context of Tao as the ultimate reality qi regarded as the driving force of the universe.

The ideal state, the main goal of the Taoist is to merge with the Tao, the source that gives absolute satisfaction and original naturalness. The “realized” no longer enters into a senseless struggle for existence and does not set false goals for himself. This perfect state is called min(enlightenment); state implies awareness of the eternal law (chan), unchanging, but causing the process of change and controlling its action in the manifested world.

Much Taoist concept min reminiscent of Buddhist enlightenment. Both teachings marked the state upon reaching which a person becomes aware of the transcendental reality that stands above the process of change and controls it.

THE PROCESS OF CHANGE AND THE TAO

According to the teaching, everything that exists is in a continuous process of change, balanced by the Tao. Chinese philosophers have always believed that the absolute category cannot be frozen, but represents a fluid, changeable principle. A classic example is the ancient Chinese treatise Yijing. (and means the change, a ching- authoritative scripture or management). Thus, The Book of Changes can be seen as a guide to divination, that is, interpreting and predicting events and making appropriate decisions based on the predictions made. The use of the book implies an individual approach, and, just as when compiling a natal chart (horoscope), a person must show an element of intuitive vision.

Like Buddhists, Taoists are confident in the impermanence and changeability of the universe. Only the eternal principle or law remains unchanged. (chan), managing the process of change. In other words, there is nothing more constant in life than change.

In a world where everything changes, there is a temptation to define some constant value that stands above events. However, as soon as this happens, a person loses the ability to objectively assess the present moment and tries to interpret events in terms of the past (premise) or future (consequence). Therefore, both Buddhism and Taoism suggest focusing exclusively on the present moment in time. Chuang Tzu (in the 14th chapter of the book named after him) says the following: "If people follow the ancient path, they will be able to control the present moment."

These words confirm another important Taoist concept. The world is what it is, and if perfection exists, it is all around us, but not in our imagination. Based on this premise, any attempt to change the world is an encroachment on its perfection, which can only be discovered while in a state of natural rest. The return to perfection is a movement from the unnatural towards the natural. In other words, the enemy of perfection will be everything unnatural, including violent, premeditated and socially prescribed actions.

According to the Judeo-Christian tradition, the world vicious, that is, it is a place where everything natural is sinful. Ideally, redemption is possible on the condition of returning to the primitive state of Adam before the fall. (The most convincing confirmation of this maxim was demonstrated in XVIIv. Christian sect of the Adamites, whose members held vigils in the nude, demonstrating their solidarity with the primordial Adam.)

Thus, from the Western point of view, nature is sinful; its most essential aspects, such as sexual urges and aggressiveness, are subject to curbing and can only manifest themselves within the narrow framework of public morality.

Taoism holds the opposite view. He proposes to get rid of everything rational, in this case, social and other prohibitions and prejudices, and return to the Tao, the natural harmony of nature.

YIN YANG

In the above quotation from the Tao Te Ching, the cosmological process of creation was indicated, where there is a direct indication of the primary differentiation of matter from one To two. Mention two there is a direct reference to the initial appearance of two principles, the semantic formulation of which is expressed in the Confucian and Taoist concepts Yin Yang. This doctrine can be considered an independent philosophical school.

Theory Yin Yang is rooted in the mists of time, but it owes its conceptual design to Zou Yan, who lived inIVv. BC e. A century later, commentaries were published on the Book of Changes, which also considered theoretical basis this teaching.

yin (dark/feminine) and yang(light / masculine) personify two types of universal forces embodied in the five elements, which in turn constitute the essence of the manifested world. Just as the Tao balances, yin and yang need it. Like the sunny and shady sides of the mountain (it was this image that formed the basis of the terminological design of the concept), yin and yang are inseparable and complement each other. Life cannot be painted only in dark colors and vice versa; to think otherwise is to be reckless.

The attempt to perceive life as an endless stream of pleasures (sunshine) is doomed in advance and leads to disappointment; just as futile is the effort to be 100% male or 100% female. This thought represents the basic concept of Taoism: the commitment to a balanced approach to all natural phenomena and the need for adjustment in case of violation of the natural balance.

Graphically expresses the concept tai chi(symbol great limit). The black color symbolizes yin, and white - jan. Two opposites form a single whole, complementing one another and flowing into each other. The symbol demonstrates the original dualism of all things. At the same time, all things are characterized by the presence of both the masculine and the feminine, the manifestation of both dark and light aspects, and the feminine necessarily contains an element of the masculine, and vice versa.

Note that the symbol personifies continuous movement, an unceasing process. In this sense, the theory does not leave room for static equilibrium, asserting the dynamism of the balance of forces.

Symbolism Yin Yang permeates all spheres of the Chinese national way of life and culture. And yet, this theory cannot be considered the property of one people, since many religions have adopted similar theories.

In our study of Buddhist ideas, we have seen that the concept of predetermined suffering (dukkha) is fundamentally realistic rather than pessimistic. Likewise, philosophy Yin Yang cannot be considered a kind of verdict of fate, but only a statement of the existing order of things. Any Eastern philosophy is alien to the idea that life is initially cloudless and suffering is just an unfortunate accident. The basic premise of any life manifestation is a balance of growth and decay, happiness and sadness, gain and loss. Proceeding from this, the sage sees the duality of everything that exists and lives in harmony with this reality. It is this approach that allows you to live happily and regardless of the black or light stripes in the fate of a person.

In general, Eastern philosophy does not elevate suffering to the rank of a problem, which cannot be said about the Western way of thinking. Western religions view life from a position yang(dominant influence male type thinking), trying to find "excuse" about the very existence yin.

There is another important aspect of the manifestation of balance yin-yang: yin represents a passive beginning, peace and reflection; yang demonstrates activity and creative power. Ideally, latent and dynamic forces should be balanced. Taoists say that in a person's life, periods of activity and contemplative rest should alternate. Otherwise, its activities will be ineffective.

At the same time, balance should be understood not so much as a way of life, but as the basic characteristics of the Tao, which determines and restores this balance. When something reaches its limit, it starts moving in the opposite direction. Therefore, we can talk about a continuous and cyclical process of changing periods of activity by a state of rest and vice versa.

A person's personality also reflects aspects yin and jan. Regardless of gender, a person has both feminine and masculine qualities. Confrontation yin and yang initiates a process of change and is in principle unsolvable. The last statement is the main premise of the Taoist worldview, according to which the inconsistency of human nature reflects the universal principle of the dual nature of things.

According to the Taoists, a person's personality cannot be identified as constant because a person becomes what a continuous process of change creates him. In other words, the life process itself is identified with the process of change. By analogy with cosmic categories, the only invariable quality of a personality is its constant transformation.

I will note the radical difference between this theory and Western ideas. Thus, Plato spoke of any material manifestation as an imperfect copy of some ideal "form". Monotheistic religions adhere to the belief in a single, good and omnipresent God and explain the frailty and imperfection of being by a conscious limitation of its creative power or the existence of the forces of Darkness; thus, the theory of "the forces of the world of Evil" became widespread. The true “I” of a person sooner or later manifests itself, and this can happen both during life, when the immortal soul throws off the shackles of material attachments (the position of the Gnostics), and after death, when the Lord calls a person to his Judgment and depending on merit and sins gives the soul (true "I") either eternal life or eternal torment.

Taoism is very far from such theoretical constructions. Just like Buddhists, Taoists do not recognize the existence of a "self" or an entity that could be identified as "I". According to these ideas, a person is nothing but a dynamic set of interaction of various elements embodying the principles Yin Yang, which in their unity never replace each other.

Instead of Judgment of God Taoists offer awareness of the eternal principle of life-giving life force qi, standing above dualism Yin Yang and, in turn, generated by the creative universal principle of Tao. Mystical comprehension of the Tao allows you to see the process of change as a whole, but is not able to stop it.

ZHUANG ZI (369-289 BC)

Around the same time that Mencius was systematizing and rethinking the teachings of Confucius, the works of Laozi were being revised by his follower Chuangzi. In the book that bears his name, the Chinese philosopher expressed what we now call Taoist philosophy. The book consists of 33 chapters, the first seven of which are written by Chuang Tzu, and the rest are written by his students.

What has already been said about the natural way of life has been rethought and acquired a new sound. In particular, Chuang Tzu coined the term whether, denoting the transformative action of the Tao. Chuang Tzu uses the term whether how principle. In this case, the meaning of this word is different from the Confucian one, which was applied in relation to the social structure. Taoist whether personifies the world order of things and in a certain sense resembles the neo-Confucian whether Zhu Xi.

Unlike Lao Tzu, whose statements are figurative and eloquent, Chuang Tzu mainly uses the language of philosophy. He was fully aware of the limited possibilities of verbal expression, but still: “The net exists because the fish exists; after catching a fish, you can forget about the existence of the net ... Words exist because they have a meaning; once you realize the meaning, you can forget the words. Where can I find a person who has forgotten the words and with whom I could talk?

An undoubted contribution to the development of Taoist ethical theory should be considered his development of the concept wu-wei(non-interference), which is considered both in the light of Taoist spirituality and in the context of a harmonious life.

LIFE IN HARMONY WITH NATURE

According to the Taoists, the world in general and man in particular are characterized by three types vital energy: shen(spirit), qi(breath) and ching(life substance). During meditation, a person seeks to merge the microcosm (Ego) with the macrocosm (universe). To this end, a person must get rid of the dualistic perception of reality; in other words, he tries to identify his Ego with the whole universe, that is, to get rid of the subject-object consciousness. Hence, Taoist meditation is deeply mystical. The mystical union with all things defies rational explanation; comprehension is carried out directly through experience. Thus, the fundamental position of Taoism is affirmed, according to which the spoken Tao is not the true Tao. What is known during meditation cannot be expressed in words.

Taoists believe that information about the entire universe is embedded in every person. Adepts reach this level of perception through meditation. Thus, following the Tao does not mean doing something contrary to human nature or ceasing to feel like a person. On the contrary, the true nature of a person is revealed upon reaching unity with the cosmos, when the person begins to feel the harmony of the spheres.

It is not typical for Eastern philosophy to draw a clear distinction between the thinking Ego and the external material world, which is so characteristic of Western thinkers (Descartes' rigid dualism). According to Western philosophers who oppose the ego outside world, any attempt at mystical experience inevitably entails the loss of a sense of one's own personality. In the East they think differently. Both Buddhists and Taoists believe that the "I" arises from Total and finds its natural expression in everyone that is, it does not have an independent and essential structure.

As soon as everything is in the process of constant change, the identification of one's own "I" becomes a painful illusion, a clear delusion, but sooner or later a person will be forced to come to terms with the reality of change. However, Taoism is not inclined to indulge in sophistication and focuses on the practical implementation of this concept. A person must be convinced by his own experience of the essence of the matter, that is, realize the true reality and feel himself a part of the flow of Tao.

Taoist meditation does not aim to pacify a person, in the sense of liberation from further changes. On the contrary, this technique develops in a person the ability and readiness for natural changes.

FENG SHUI

While meditation harmonizes a person's internal resources, feng shui is the art of living in harmony with the world through external means. Literally Feng Shui translates as wind and water that is, it denotes the natural elements that form the landscape. Conceptually, art is related to the theory of presence qi(life force) in the environment. A feng shui master knows how to arrange the environment in the best way, that is, in such a way as to ensure optimal flow. qi.

To ensure a harmonious flow of energy, architectural features buildings, its orientation to the terrain and even the interior. Separate rooms should be located in accordance with the needs and aspects of life of the people living in the house. A feng shui consultant can advise on how to make your home cozy and fit for a harmonious life.

From the position of basic philosophical concepts, we can say that feng shui brings artificially created things and the external aspects of life to perfection, using knowledge of the laws of nature. A harmoniously built and properly located home will look attractive and provide a balanced flow of energy.

Feng Shui confirms the view that Eastern philosophy does not shy away from everyday aspects of life, as well as scientific research. Here we have an example of the application of basic metaphysical concepts in practice in order to improve energy and ensure decent living conditions.

Non-intervention and rejection of ethical dogmatism

The key term for refraining from active action is woo-wei. It can be translated as non-intervention although the word itself does not imply absolute passivity. On the contrary, it is an action, but carried out in accordance with two principles:

No effort should be wasted;

Do not do anything contrary to the laws of nature.

Wu-wei should be translated as spontaneous or natural action. This is what a person does intuitively, without planning. In some ways, such an action resembles the behavior of a child, free from conventions and unaware of the consequences of his actions. This is an action motivated by real circumstances, not fantasies.

Often we act contrary to our nature for the sole purpose of proving some idea or principle. At such moments, the personality is internally contradictory: emotions suggest one thing, the rational principle - another, consciousness - the third. Under such conditions, the act is ineffective and unnatural, as it is the result of a compromise between different areas consciousness. Wu-wei embodies spontaneous and natural behavior. Acting in this way, we do not ask ourselves the question of the legitimacy of the act, but simply perform it.

According to Chuang Tzu, a person should act only when the act is effective. a priori. If the efforts being made are doomed in advance, then no action should be taken at all. As a guide to action, he offered wu-wei. The third chapter of Chuang Tzu tells of a butcher whose knife was in constant use, but for a long time remained sharp. The reason for this was the skill of the owner, who carved the carcasses so skillfully that the tool never hit the bone or tendon, doing its work along the natural cavities between the fibers; in other words, minimal effort demonstrated maximum efficiency.

Two more examples.

1. Suppose a person first got behind the wheel of a car. As he learns how to drive, he constantly thinks about when to change gear, which lane to choose, where the turn signal switch is located, how fast to depress the clutch pedal, and how often to brake. Any action of a novice driver consists in applying theoretical knowledge in practice, that is, before acting, he is forced to remember the location of the corresponding control levers. Now consider the behavior of an experienced motorist. Sitting behind the wheel, he does not think about the sequence of his actions, but carries them out automatically. When he sees an obstacle or a sharp turn on the road, he does not indulge in arguments like “I need to slow down, and for this I need to press the middle pedal,” but his foot instinctively presses the brake pedal.

2. Ballroom dancing. Comments are superfluous.

Wu-wei is a quality that allows you to look at things with an open mind, the art of being yourself, the skill of natural behavior and self-confidence. Wu-wei manifests itself when a person does not adhere to conditional stereotypes of behavior and does not think about what he is doing. In other words, a person obeys the orders of the subconscious, without wasting time on logical analysis and conscious assessment of the situation.

Hence the rejection of ethical stereotypes. Ethics implies a rational understanding of the act and the way of its implementation. In most cases, moral assessment occurs after the implementation of an act, the results of which speak for themselves.

As a rule, ethical judgments are the prerogative of third-party observers. The consciousness of people is subject to the influence of social and religious rules and prohibitions. Trying to determine the morality of his act, a person is forced to be guided by one or another motivation. It is ethical norms that put a person in front of such a dilemma, when he has to think in advance or evaluate the consequences of his act.

In this sense, Taoists are not adherents of moral norms. When performing this or that act, a person should not stop halfway to assess the consequences and remember the rules of conduct. Ethical criteria are necessary for those who do not feel the Tao.

It should be noted the fundamental difference between the morality of Taoists and Confucians. According to Confucius, moral norms should be determined by legal acts regulating social behavior. In other words, some actions bring undoubted social benefit even when they contradict natural human motives. Taoists consider this approach unacceptable. Such violence against human nature violates the harmony of Tao.

All people inevitably face the same problems, and Taoism offers a life philosophy of natural behavior that minimizes negative experiences. Clarifying his point of view, Chuang Tzu gives the following example. A drunk person falling from a wagon may get off with a slight fright, while a sober person is likely to be crippled. This happens due to the fact that the drunk is completely relaxed, that is, his body is in a “natural” state, and the body of a sober person tenses in a moment of danger, which makes him vulnerable.

INDIVIDUALISM

In the views of Taoists, a person's personality is a direct expression of his de(force), or the manifested energy of Tao. The main goal is to achieve a state of unity with the world, that is, a return to the original source - Tao.

Note that such comprehension is strictly individual and does not carry any social component. If we recall the position of the Confucians, then the latter consider the only correct behavior due to whether, that is, social etiquette and tradition. As for the Taoists, they put the interests of the individual, not society, at the forefront. Therefore, the main differences in the approaches of these traditions can be compared with the difference between natural and artificial, spontaneous and prescribed.

Chuang Tzu argued that a person should not be guided by any external motivation, whether it be social morality or the expectation of encouragement or condemnation. However, such a position does not mean at all that arbitrary actions are necessarily antisocial and the person who commits them does not take into account the interests of others. The meaning of an unmotivated action is the lack of interest in the results of this action.

Mencius' opponent, Mo-tzu, proclaimed the idea of ​​universal love and severely criticized the Confucian scale of values, according to which a person should first of all love and respect his relatives and close friends, even if they do not deserve such an attitude. The Taoist thinker Yang Zhu adhered to the other extreme, recognizing the personal good of a person as the only immutable value category; according to this position, a person should follow two goals: to protect his person from danger in every possible way and try to live as long as possible. However, such a logical conclusion is debatable, and its conformity with the basic principles of Taoism is doubtful.

Zhuangzi believed that there is no abstract good and evil, and these categories appear depending on the circumstances and personal characteristics of the participants in the event. However, this does not mean that Taoists are absolutely free from any moral obligations. Rather, their ethical teaching is aimed at preparing a person for liberation from outdated moral stereotypes. The second chapter of Chuang Tzu speaks of the fundamental insolubility of any dispute, since a person who has taken on the role of a judge is forced to take the side of one of the disputants and thereby supports someone else's point of view. In other words, as soon as it concerns a moral choice, the evaluation criterion becomes a relative value, since how many people - so many opinions.

NATURAL AND SIMPLE

Like a stream of water, human life should flow along the path of least resistance. Therefore, the ideal of the Taoists is an existence free from manifestations of passions and ambitions. However, a serious obstacle to liberation from worldly desires is education, for knowledge increases attachment to desires and ambitious aspirations. That is why the Taoists developed a theory of thinking that prevents the increase of intellectual and educational levels.

Natural simplicity (pyu) manifests itself in spontaneous actions (woo-wei) reflecting natural harmony. In the process of wu-wei, the personality is expressed in its original simplicity and unity with the outside world. In this case, the consciousness does not have time to show its rational principle and the subconscious mind takes over the functions of managing the personality.

The Taoists seek to regain the lost childish spontaneity and natural integrity of human nature.

These qualities contribute to the awareness of the nature of all living beings and the place of man in this world. Like Buddhists, Taoists empathize with all living beings. One day Chuang Tzu dreamed that he was a butterfly and when he woke up he asked himself the question: “How can I know if a person dreamed of a sleeping butterfly or a sleeping person dreamed that he was a butterfly?”

Philosophical motives in the works of Zhuang Tzu echo Buddhist ideas, especially in the part where it comes to instant awareness of one's own impersonality, that is, the loss of a sense of personal "I" in a holistic picture of the universe. This concept had a special influence on the work of Chinese landscape painters and poets. A clear vision of the perspective of the landscape and the simplicity and naturalness of the figurative language of Chinese artists and poets to a certain extent reflect the principles of the teachings of Chuang Tzu. The idea of ​​natural harmony is embodied in many aspects of Chinese art. For example, in the works of landscape painters, mountains (yang) usually balanced by some body of water (yin). Sometimes artists deliberately create the impression of dynamism in their subjects (the process of change); so, under the pressure of the roots of trees, the rock is covered with cracks. As a rule, people and residential buildings occupy a certain place in the picture and, in comparison with the majestic landscape surrounding them, seem insignificant. According to the laws of Feng Shui, the entire compositional structure is balanced, and people are depicted in accordance with the direction of the flow of positive energy. In general, a feeling of a harmonious flow is created, symbolizing the process of change.

Taoism has penetrated into all spheres of Chinese life; thus, the art of feng shui achieves a balance between man-made objects of the environment and the natural energies of the flow qi, a concept Yin Yang reflected in the characteristics of Chinese cuisine. Some types of food, such as meat, are consistent with the principle yang, while others, such as vegetables, are associated with yin. Everything that is served on the table should express balance Yin Yang. For example, a side dish for beef (yang) nuts can serve (yin) and tea should be served with any meat dish (yin) but not strong drinks (jan).

In the West, the most famous Taoist technique has become a set of tai chi exercises, represented by a set of sequential movements, with the help of which balance is restored. Yin Yang. A person who has mastered this technique performs the exercises spontaneously and naturally, and the evoked flow qi not controlled by consciousness. Art originated in XIVcentury, has gained numerous fans, many of whom have no idea about its Taoist background.

All of the above confirms the practicality of Taoism, materializing its theories in art and everyday life. At the same time, an attempt to embody metaphysical ideas and fundamental Taoist principles in cultural phenomena and features of the national character is clearly traced.

ATTITUDE TO STATE POWER

main theme"Tao Te Ching" is a critique of the artificiality of cultural and social traditions. According to the authors, the government should not interfere with the natural life process. Lao Tzu himself sought to define something more essential than social norms and political structure states.

Since Taoism put the interests of the individual above all else, state power and civil institutions were seen as a mechanism for suppressing natural human impulses and inclinations. Ideally, the state should minimize its intervention in privacy members of the society. The desire to see the rulers inactive may have been due to the corruption of the civil government and its indifference to the needs of the subjects.

The most obvious Western analogue can be considered the position of the anarchists. The attitude of Taoists to state power is associated with the ideas of Proudhon and Leo Tolstoy.

DAOISM AS A SYSTEM OF RELIGIOUS VIEWS

According to the Taoists, the Jade (or Jasper) Heavenly Emperor, the highest deity of the Taoist religion, rules over the entire world of supernatural forces. Many legends have been created about the glorious deeds of the Jade Emperor. One of them says that in ancient times, the Chinese ruler and his wife prayed for the gift of an heir. After such prayers, the wife saw in a dream Lao Tzu sitting astride a dragon with a baby in her arms. Soon she was relieved of her burden by the long-awaited son, who from childhood showed mercy, cared for the poor, and was virtuous. Having occupied the royal throne, after a few years he gave it to one of the ministers, and he himself began to lead a hermit life, treat the sick and reflect on the path to immortality. This young man became one of the most popular deities of the Taoist pantheon - the Jade Emperor, the lord of heaven and hell.

His duties included the eradication of all sins, the introduction of justice through the punishment of sinners in life and judgment on them after death, the reward for virtue and the promise of joy in the afterlife.

The common people considered the Jade Emperor to be the human embodiment of Heaven, so he was very popular among the people. In village churches built on elevated places, one could often see his image, to which the peasants fanatically prayed. The father of the Jade Emperor, the ruler Jing-de personified the sun, and his mother Bao-sheng personified the moon. Green plants and beautiful flowers symbolized their life together.

Not content with the deification of the visible forces of nature, Taoist mythology created sacred mountains, heavenly and earthly caves, where immortal saints live.

An important place in the Taoist pantheon is occupied by the goddess Xi Wang-mu, the mother of the Western sky. According to legend, she lives in the Kunlun Mountains, in a beautiful palace of marble and jade, which is surrounded by a vast garden bordered by a golden rampart. Twelve high towers and battlements built of valuable stones protected the monastery from evil spirits. There were fountains of amazing beauty in the garden, but the main attraction of the garden were peach trees, which bore fruit once every three thousand years. Such a fruit granted immortality to those who taste it.

It was the abode of men and women (immortals) who served Xi Wang-mu. They, in accordance with the ranks assigned to them, wore robes of different colors - blue, black, yellow, purple and light brown.

The wife of the goddess was called Dun Van-gun - the prince of the East. The wife "knew" the Western sky and personified the feminine yin, and the husband “kept in charge” of the Eastern sky and personified the masculine principle jan.

Dong Wang-gong, dressed in purple mist, lived in the Eastern sky in a palace made of clouds. Once a year, on Xi Wang-mu's birthday, the gods gathered in her palace. The god of happiness came in an official blue robe; the hands of the god of wealth were filled with treasures; the king of dragons - the lord of the rivers and seas and the jade lake - came on a thundercloud.

In the palace of the goddess, they were treated to unusual dishes made from a bear's paw, monkey liver, bone marrow of a phoenix bird. Peaches of immortality were served for dessert. During the meal, the gods were delighted by gentle music and amazing singing.

Usually, Xi Wang-mu is depicted as a beautiful woman dressed in a magnificent robe and sitting on a crane. There are always two servant girls around her. One of them is holding a large fan, and the other is holding a basket filled with peaches of immortality.

A very essential element of the Taoist religion is the doctrine of immortality. Since ancient times, the Chinese have considered longevity a symbol of human happiness. Congratulating someone on his birthday, he was presented with various amulets of longevity. The most common of these was the image of a peach. Hieroglyph show(longevity) was given a mystical meaning. This sign was pasted on the walls and worn on the chest.

The fantasy of people gave birth to the most incredible legends about longevity. In ancient China, the legend of magical islands in the East Sea, where a miraculous herb grows, which makes a person immortal, was widely spread. But no one could reach these magical islands, since the winds did not allow them to approach them. Emperor Qin Shi-huang, believing this legend, sent several thousand young men and women, led by a Taoist monk, to search for the islands. The search was unsuccessful. But the very idea of ​​achieving immortality still attracted the close attention of the Taoists and the rulers of China.

In canonical Taoism, the problem of immortality is interpreted something like this. A person is affected by a huge number of spirits (36 thousand), which have a decisive influence on the development of the body. Spirits are divided into groups, each of them is endowed with certain functions. A person does not listen to these spirits, therefore, does not know about their existence. And this leads to premature death. Only by knowing the connection of spirits with the corresponding organs of the human body, one can achieve immortality. It is necessary that the spirits do not leave the body and that their strength grows. When the spirits achieve complete power over the human body, then it "dematerializes", and the person, having become immortal, will ascend to heaven.

Alchemists have worked hard in search of the elixir of immortality. For its manufacture, various minerals were used: cinnabar (mercury sulphide), sulfur, crude saltpeter, arsenic, mica, etc., as well as stone and peach wood, mulberry tree ash, various roots and herbs. In addition, gold essence, jade essence, made with the help of mystical formulas from gold and jade, was used.

To achieve immortality and invulnerability, it was necessary to master a whole range of gymnastic exercises, as well as learn a number of spells. The "first stage of holiness" was acquired by gymnastic training, which lasted one hundred days, and the "second stage of holiness" - four hundred days.

Were developed various tricks breathing: how to breathe like a toad, a turtle, a stork that live longer than a person. Such exercises, according to the Taoists, made it possible for the spirits in the human body to focus on themselves; having renounced everything earthly, man came into contact with supernatural forces.

According to the Taoists, any food contributes to rapid aging, therefore, in order to prolong life, one must give up meat, spices, vegetables, and wine. It was not recommended to eat food made from grain: the spirits inside the body cannot stand the pungent odors generated from such food, and therefore can leave a person. It is best to feed on your own saliva. Saliva, according to Taoist beliefs, was considered a life-giving agent that gives strength to a person.

Mysticism was the soul of the Taoist religion, and this manifested itself, in particular, in various kinds of talismans and amulets. Talismans wrote on narrow strips yellow paper. On the left, on such strips of paper, cabalistic signs were drawn (a combination of various lines and indistinctly written hieroglyphs). The believer could not understand the meaning of the cabalistic signs, and this created an atmosphere of mystery. On the right, the purpose of the talisman and the method of handling it were explained. As a rule, the talismans were burned, the resulting ashes were mixed with some kind of liquid, and then they all drank it all as a potion that heals all diseases and protects against misfortunes.

The pantheon of religious Taoism includes almost all the deities of ancient Chinese religions. There are so many saints in the Taoist religion that they even had to be divided into several classes: earthly, living in seclusion in the mountains; heavenly, dwelling in heaven and surpassing all others in strength and power; ascetics who, although they have renounced all earthly and carnal temptations, have not yet reached immortality; saints who live on magical islands in the East Sea; demons are incorporeal spirits, something like ghosts. In general, the Taoists divide all the ethereal spirits of their extremely populous pantheon into the main - heavenly and secondary - earthly.

The method by which the Taoists recommended that believers pass from earthly existence to the world of spirits was very simple: a person should leave his loved ones, retire to the mountains and lead an ascetic life there.

In the Taoist religion, a large place was given to the so-called holy man. (hsien-zhen). Chinese character xiang(saint) consists of two elements: "man" and "mountain", it can be interpreted as follows: "a man who lives in the mountains." To achieve the state of holiness, it was necessary to fulfill three requirements: to purify the soul, to master special gymnastic exercises to perfection, and, finally, to prepare the elixir of immortality.

To cleanse the soul, it was necessary to lead a modest life in solitude, usually in the mountains, abstain from unnecessary food and indulge in mystical contemplation. A person who led a half-starved existence, "ate" the air and renounced earthly needs, allegedly acquired the qualities of a saint and approached the world of spirits.

On this occasion, there was such an aphorism among the Chinese people: “He who eats vegetables becomes strong; who eats meat becomes brave; whoever eats rice becomes wise; whoever feeds on air becomes holy.”

However, even the most fanatical adherents of the Taoist religion, having lived all their lives as ascetics, eventually died. Taoists imagined their afterlife as follows. When a person's life ends, his body remains on earth, and the soul, like a phoenix, rises up - to immortality. From that time on, she becomes a spirit and visits heavenly abodes. Sometimes such spirits appear on earth among the living. Then they again assume their former human form and receive everything they need from earthly objects.

There was another belief: the spirits take the body of the deceased Taoist to heaven with them. In this case, mysterious transformations take place: thanks to the drunken miraculous potion, the taken herbal pills or the memorized magic formula written on paper, the body of the Taoist forever becomes unfading. Having tasted the elixir of immortality, the Taoist enters into eternal life, leads an existence that does not depend on material laws, resides in beautiful grottoes on sacred mountains or on blessed islands, etc. But this is no longer a mortal person, but a spirit free from influence earthly forces.

What are the characteristic features endowed with spirits? They could freely communicate with people, possessed magical powers and did extraordinary, supernatural deeds. They rode in cloudy chariots, illuminated by radiant radiance; they ate from the blessed celestial peach, commanded flying dragons or celestial storks, lived in palaces of pearls and jade or in luxurious tents. They were credited with the ability to reincarnate. Spirits were often depicted as ordinary people with various objects in their hands: a fan, a brush, or a bunch of strips of paper with immortality formulas written on them.

After the spirits of the deceased men and women acquired immortality, their physical appearance, even after millennia, remained the same as it was in earthly life. The spirits rose above the clouds, were transported wherever they pleased, but a strictly defined place was chosen for permanent residence. Although on the ground they appeared in ordinary clothes, but by the expression on their faces they could immediately be distinguished from people.

Taoist books abound with stories of people who have achieved immortality. The most common legends are about the eight immortals who were once ordinary people, and then, incarnated in spirits, they settled in complete solitude on the islands or on high mountains - where mere mortals could not disturb them.

Here is one of them.

Lan Cai-he

It was a fool. In the summer, he went around in a padded robe, and in the winter, lightly dressed, he often lay in the snow. His dress, belted with a black belt, was a real sackcloth. One foot was wearing a boot, the other was barefoot. Singing songs that he immediately improvised, he wandered through the markets and begged. When coins were thrown to him, he handed them out or, stringing them on a string, dragged them along the ground, and when they scattered, he did not even look back. Lan Cai-he was a drunkard. One day, while sitting in a tavern and amusing those present, he suddenly heard the singing of holy Taoists. At the same moment, he silently rose into the sky - he was picked up by a cloud. Lan Cai-he threw down his boots, robe, belt. The cloud went up, getting smaller and smaller, and since then no one on earth has heard of Lan Cai-he.

This immortal is considered the patron saint of musicians and is depicted with a flute in his hands.

A large place in the Taoist religion was given to the ceremonial of worship. Worship in Taoist temples was done something like this. Signature sheets were pasted on the facade of the temple: they indicated the names of the donors and the amount of money donated by them. The service usually began in the early hours of the morning. On the way to the temple, the priests went to the houses of the donors, whose names were written down in the signature lists, gave them paper amulets and took pre-prepared texts of prayers in which the believers turned to God with their requests. In these appeals, it was necessary to indicate the name, year of birth and place of residence of the petitioner: God needs to know to what address he should send his blessings.

Arriving at the temple, the priests first of all invited the deity to accept sacrificial gifts. The chief priest said prayers to the accompaniment of music. Two of his assistants at this time struck the spherical wooden drums to the beat. Others prostrated themselves before the image of the deity. Then the chief priest unfolded the signature sheet, loudly read the names of the donors and prayed to God to send them a blessing. After that, the collected prayers were read. Having finished this ceremony, the priests got up from their knees and performed the rite of sacrifice. The chief priest raised the sacrificial dishes and bowls high in his hands in order to symbolically offer them to the gods. In conclusion, all prayers and sacrificial papers were burned.

Since the entire space surrounding a person was filled with evil spirits that could bring misfortune and even death, fighting them, avoiding their machinations was a matter of paramount importance, and this is where the Taoist monks came to the rescue. Countless legends were composed among the people about their "exploits" in battles with evil spirits. Here is one of them.

The young man was fascinated by the young beauty. Once on the street he met a Taoist monk. The latter, carefully peering into the young man's face, said that he was bewitched. The young man hurried home, but the door of his house was locked. Then he cautiously climbed onto the windowsill and peered into the room. There he saw a hideous devil with a green face and saw-sharp teeth. The devil sat on the human skin spread out on the bed and painted it with a brush. Noticing a stranger, he threw aside the brush, shook out the human skin, threw it over his shoulders. And - about miracles! turned into a girl.

The legend went on to say that the devil girl killed the young man, cut open his body and tore out his heart. Such unprecedented cruelty outraged the Taoist monk: he made the devil girl turn into a column of thick smoke. The monk then took a gourd bottle from his robe and threw it into the smoke. There was a dull explosion, and the whole column of smoke seemed to pour into a bottle, which the Taoist tightly corked with a cork.

Literature:

Vasiliev L. S. History of Religions of the East: Textbook for High Schools. M.: Book house, 2006. 702 p. Vasiliev L.S. Cults, religions and traditions in China. M.: Nauka, 1970. 480 p. Thompson M. Eastern Philosophy / transl. from English. Y. Bonadarev. M.: FAIR-PRESS, 2000. 384 p.

Taoism had a huge influence here - we want to talk about it today.

In the article below, we will describe in detail what history lies in it, who was its founder, what basic terms and ideas this line of thought contains, and how true Taoists practice. You will also learn Interesting Facts revealing the essence of this Chinese teaching.

What it is

Taoism is a doctrine that has spread in China. It is considered one of the oldest in the world - the period of occurrence dates back to about the 5th century BC.

Taoism is called a religious and philosophical view, because it has absorbed the features of both concepts:

• philosophy with its inherent study of being, knowledge, the universe, philosophical treatises - tao jia;
• religion, which is based on faith in higher powers and involves a certain dogmatism, as well as indispensable spiritual practices - dao jiao.

However, such a division is hardly noticeable - as a rule, Taoism is considered as a combination of religious and philosophical aspects.

At the same time, there is no God as such - the concept of "tao" is the basis. It is ambiguous and implies the beginning, the way to comprehend the world order, the nature of the Universe and its laws. The main goal is to merge with the Tao, to become one.

There is an opinion that Taoist philosophy is in opposition to Confucian philosophy, and it is not without foundation. In both currents there is the concept of "dao", but it is interpreted somewhat differently.

Confucianism sees Tao as the observance of moral principles, the rules of humanism. It involves the constant self-improvement of a person as a part of society - teaching writing, exact sciences, music, sportsmanship. In other words, Confucius looked at Tao in the context of social life.

In contrast, Taoism considers Tao as the nature of all things, the origin of being. A person must live according to the laws of nature, be a part of it, forgetting about his own "I" and not interfering with the measured course of life. Simple and natural - these are the main characteristics of the Taoist life.

Founders

Taoism as we know it finally took shape in the 2nd century AD. However, there is evidence that already in the 5-3 centuries BC there was a doctrine based on the Tao.

It is believed that initially mystical beliefs formed the basis of thought:

• shamanism of the Chu region in South China territory with its rites and practices;
• rituals associated with magic and belief in immortal existence, which existed in the Chinese region of Qi;
• philosophy of the Chinese north.

There are legends that are called the founder of Huang Di, better known as the "Yellow Emperor". His identity is shrouded in mystery. So, for example, they say that his tomb has been preserved, but only the clothes of the emperor are contained there, while he himself gained immortal life.

However, more confirmed and reliable sources claim that the founder was a famous sage named , who lived in the 5th-4th century BC.

Lao Tzu combined the main provisions of the teaching into a single system, outlining the dogmatic, ritual foundations - this is how the book "Tao Te Ching" was born, which means "Treatise on the law of Tao and its manifestations in the Universe." It became the basis for the further development of Taoism, being the same age as Confucian texts.

Very little is known about the scientist himself, and all the information is overgrown with legends. One legend says that the mother of Lao Tzu touched the moon and sun rays, the other is that she accidentally swallowed a piece of rock crystal and thus conceived a son.

A woman carried a child in her womb for decades, so he was born already an old man. From here came his name, which translates as "Old Baby".

There is evidence that Lao Tzu was familiar with the philosophy of Confucius and even met him live in 517 BC. Then Lao Tzu worked in the archive at the palace of the Zhou dynasty. He criticized Confucius for preaching too active a social life - this was fundamentally contrary to the view of Tao and non-interference with the forces of nature.

Then he formed his own ideas as opposed to Confucian ones, began to bring the doctrine of Tao to the world and became a great scientist. Disillusioned with statehood, he became a hermit, changed names for those around him, and in the end decided to leave the Middle Kingdom.

The creation of the book also has its own history. During the journey, Lao Tzu met with a border guard who asked him to share his views. The wanderer wrote down the main ideas in eighty-one verses, which later became the work of the Tao Te Ching.

There are legends about the further fate of Lao Tzu: he went either to Tibet, or to India, where he got acquainted with Buddhist teachings, and perhaps he was in the territories where Russia was later formed.

By the 2nd century AD, the fame of Lao Tzu had spread throughout China, and followers began to worship the master and compare him to a deity. Together with him in the pantheon there were many spirits - divine and demonic, as well as rituals that are capable of expelling these demons.

Another significant name in the development of Taoism was Zhuang Zhou, who lived in the 4th-3rd centuries BC. He wrote the treatise Chuang Tzu, which supplemented the existing provisions on the Tao.

Idea development

Taoist schools began to take shape in the 1st-2nd centuries AD, changing over time, dividing or, conversely, merging with others.

The main ones were:

• School of Celestial Guides

Initially known as the "Five Buckets of Rice", it appeared in the 1st-2nd century and developed during the so-called Six Dynasties era. It later split into northern and southern schools. In the Tang era, in the 12th century, they revived again in the form of the School of the True One - Zhenyi, widespread in the south.

• Quanzhen

The so-called "monastic Taoism". It was formed in the post-Mongolian period and found recognition in the south of the country.

• Maoshan

Also known as Shangqing. The main practices were visualization and contact with higher powers. In the early 14th century it fell into disrepair.

• Lingbao

Closely associated with Buddhist thought, she made a bias towards meditative practices. It was also absorbed, and then completely ceased to exist in the XIV century.

Existing next to Buddhism and Brahmanism, which later took shape in Hinduism, Taoist thought had some common features with them, for example, the idea of ​​the Absolute, as well as the idea of ​​the relativity of life and death.

Hinduism

In the 5th century, the number of Taoists grew, hermits joined them, dreaming of a surprisingly long (8-12 centuries) or immortal life, which Taoism speaks of. At this time it becomes more of a religion than just a philosophy. The main difference between the Taoist view is the desire for immortality, while representatives of other religions dream of paradise.

By the 5th century there were over two hundred and fifty treatises of Taoism, by the 17th century more fifty were added, and now there are almost one and a half thousand works.

Taoism has never been a traditional religion. It was built on the principles of equality of people, so peasants, workers, and the lower strata joined it en masse. Often there were Taoist popular uprisings.

During the Tang and Sung empires, knowledge of the basic texts of Taoism was part of the imperial examination program.

In the Middle Ages, monasteries were built throughout the country, where hermit monks lived and comprehended the nature of Tao. They allowed only the initiates to their rites. Often, individual monks lived in alienation, cutting down stone cells.

During the reign of the Qing, starting from the 17th century, persecution of religion began, Taoist monasteries were destroyed, and sacred books were burned. The rulers referred to the fact that Taoism is a pseudoscience with its excessive contemplation and undermines the foundations of statehood. This situation continued until the middle of the 20th century, only occasionally followed by periods of relative recognition.

Chinese painting, 17th century

With the advent of the 60s and the Cultural Revolution, the teachings were rehabilitated, monasteries were built again, and philosophical thought began to move west. Modern Taoism is a religious and philosophical trend that contains unique monasteries, mystical rites that smell of esotericism, practices for training the mind, body and soul.

In modern times, Taoist teachings have mostly gained fame thanks to qigong breathing exercises, wushu martial techniques, and feng shui, which originated here. From here also originates the famoussymbolmale and female energy - yin-yang.

Basic provisions

What is Tao

This is a multi-valued concept that can be compared with the Absolute. Dao is:

• something that gives birth to everything around, incomprehensible, permanent, nameless and formless;
• general law;
• fundamental principle of life;
• beginning and end of being;
• world order;
• eternal way, constant movement.

Tao has no name and form, but gives them to everything that exists. Only it is permanent, and everything else is temporary. Here, opposite phenomena are combined, which become a single whole.

Tao is emptiness, but everything is created through it. Only by merging with the Tao, one can know happiness and immortality.

Lao Tzu compared emptiness to a room: after all, it is not the walls that are important in the room, but the space between them, that is, emptiness.

Main postulates

The main ideas of Taoism are that man is a microcosm, he exists indefinitely, just like the Universe is a macrocosm. Death in the physical plane means only that the soul will unite with the Tao.

In Taoism, there is no color, shape, personality, or self. There is emptiness, and the main task of a person is to contemplate and observe. Any action directed against the order of life wastes time, energy, and sometimes can lead to bad consequences.

The main goal of Taoism is to teach people to distinguish good from evil and to do only good deeds, to reveal the secret of the Universe through meditation and looking inward, to acquire harmonious relationships with the outside world.

To comprehend the Tao, you need to remember and observe three main rules:

1. Nourishing the soul

Divine and demonic beings live in man. Good deeds feed the good deities, while evil deeds feed the demons. The more virtue in a person, the closer he is to happiness.

2. Nutrition of the body

You need to eat without frills, observing a diet and fasting. Ideal Nutrition- with its saliva and dew of herbs. The body must also be nourished by physical and respiratory exercises, and sexual relations should be with a permanent partner.

The path of ascetic abstinence in food was difficult, so Taoist alchemists have long tried to find the elixir of immortality. The ruler of Qin Shi Huang Di even sent expeditions to look for him.

This concept means "non-doing". But not in the sense of being lazy and doing nothing. It would be more correct to say "non-intervention" - in the natural course of events, the laws of the universe. According to her, there is no need to purposefully do something, because the Universe arranges everything on its own, and people's self-activity can only get in the way.

According to the concept of Wu-wei, the best ruler is the one who does not interfere in the lives of his subjects, does not change anything, and only occasionally prevents uprisings.

To know the Tao, you need to forget about your "I" and associate yourself with the whole world around you. Even when you are doing some business, for example, cleaning the house, you should try to stop the flow of thoughts - the "I" absorbed in the business disappears. This practice is available at any time, even, for example, during normal walking.

eight pillars

There are 8 pillars - methods of Taoism, which are aimed at improving and harmonizing relations with the world:

• Philosophy is the desire to know the essence of being, natural and social laws.
• Update - meditations and practices for health.
• Nutrition - no meat.
• Forgotten food - "forgetting" food during fasting, dieting.
• Healing - effective application energy and distribution with the help of massage manipulations, acupuncture.
• The Tao of Sexual Wisdom - Sexual relationships are seen here as a therapy and a way to strengthen feelings.
• Excellence is continuous self-improvement.
• Success - certain goals and plans for mastering knowledge.

three treasures

Lao Tzu named three human virtues that require protection and nourishment:

• qi - the energy of life, love, mercy;
• jian - the energy of rational economy, which also determines the appearance of people;
• shen is a spirit endowed with reason.

Taoists in search of immortal life invented glass, porcelain, compass, gunpowder.

Conclusion

In conclusion, let us briefly say that Taoism is a unique philosophical and religious view that originated 25 centuries ago in China. Over the course of its long history, it has undergone significant changes, sometimes gaining thousands of followers, sometimes being subjected to severe persecution.

The fundamental concept is Tao, the beginning of beginnings, the law by which everything in the Universe lives. True Taoists strive to nourish the soul and body without interfering with the natural course of life.

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! We hope you have become a little closer to the amazing culture of China and better acquainted with one of its main teachings. If you liked the article, share new knowledge with your friends!

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"Those who say they can explain the Tao don't understand it, and those who understand it don't explain anything..."

Once in Zhou China, along with three powerful religions ( Confucianism and Buddhism) a unique philosophical doctrine arose, at the origins of which, according to legend, was the sage Lao Tzu(Old baby) who wrote a Taoist treatise "Tao Te Ching", which outlines the main provisions Taoism. Central to the religious doctrine of Taoism is the doctrine of Dao(which is also called neo-Confucianism). Dao- "the unborn, giving rise to all that exists", the universal Law, dominating forever and everywhere, the Fundamental Principle of being. Incomprehensible to the senses, inexhaustible and constant, without name and form, Tao gives name and form to everything. Target practicing Taoism - to become one with the Tao, to merge with Him, knowing ...

In his treatises on the Tao, Lao Tzu wrote that "in the face of death, everything is insignificant, because of everything that exists, Nothing peeps through. Nothing is the fundamental principle of the world, everything arises from nothing. Nothing is the path of things, phenomena, processes, because everything follows from Nothing and everything returns to Nothing". Losing the personal beginning (ego, "I"), the Taoist joins the Tao - the Great Nothing, comprehending the Great Nothing and becoming it, he is able to become anything, not being more than "I", but becoming Everything and Nothing at the same time ...

Everything in the world happens spontaneously, naturally, according to the will of Heaven, the Taoists believe, thanks to a mechanism called the "heavenly spring". Trying to influence the course of events, a person violates harmony, therefore one of the Taoist principles is inaction(whale. wu wei). Wu-wei is not inaction, it is action outside the mind, outside of reasoning, action in a meditative state of silence of the mind, when actions flow naturally, without assumptions about the course of events, without interpreting them, without explanations ... In the state of Wu-wei, you can chop wood , paint pictures, cultivate a garden - do anything if your mind is silent at the same time. The adept takes an observant position towards everything, especially towards himself. He is unflappable and analyzes through intuitive thinking, but not discursive.

The heavenly spring, a kind of "first push", initiates a person's life, which then spontaneously proceeds from birth to death. Observing nature, studying medicine, alchemy, astronomy, geomancy etc., engaging in Taoist breathing, meditative practices, an adept can achieve connection, merge with Tao, acquire the state of Tao, the state of immortality. The world in its essence does not contain contradictions, but an eternal transformation takes place in it. The practitioner of Tao must meekly follow His flow, staying in naturalness and natural simplicity; to accept everything that life offers, inwardly calmly and naturally, without contradicting one's true nature, without waging war with oneself. Calm down and accept the world as it is here and now. Following this path, being in natural harmony with the world, in harmony with nature, it is possible to gain longevity and prosperity of the spirit. According to the Taoists, nature creates itself and organizes itself, having a higher spiritual principle in its fundamental principle. All manifestations of nature are manifestations of this spiritual principle. It is in the comprehension of constant natural activity that the source of the deepest Truth about the world is hidden, the Taoists believe.

Lao Tzu wrote that there are three treasures which are the highest mentors of man are love, moderation and humility.

Taoist doctrine is based on the postulate of the Eight Pillars, which are branches of Taoist practices and philosophy. The main emphasis in them is on health and longevity, on therapeutic and health-improving systems of exercises and harmonious relationship with the surrounding world.

1. Dao(path) philosophy. A person should strive to comprehend the meaning and purpose of life, his destiny, the laws of nature and society.
2. Tao update. Through exercise and meditation, the practitioner should achieve health and longevity.
3. Tao of proper nutrition. Taoist food is based on vegetarian cuisine.
4. The Tao of Forgotten Food. It is also necessary to remember about clinical nutrition, which includes fasting, diets and herbal medicine to ensure a certain dietary regimen.
5. Tao of healing. The regulation and correct use of the vital energy given to us in this incarnation is required. The method of repositioning of protruding organs by massage, acupuncture and other forms of manual therapy is used.
6. Tao of sexual wisdom. Sex and conception of a child should be conscious and controlled actions.
7. Tao of perfection. It is necessary to achieve excellence in any area for yourself and others, including with the help of prediction systems (astrology, fingerprint divination, numerology, horoscopes and forecasts for the future).
8. Dao of success. It is necessary to develop a strategy that will allow the adept to harmonize the laws of nature and society. This strategy implies a relentless mastery of the sciences, psychology and philosophy, including in practice.

The Taoists believe that man is eternal substance, and his body is a kind microcosm, the accumulation of spirits and divine forces, the result of the interaction of Yin and Yang, male and female principles. Anyone who seeks to achieve immortality (or youth and longevity) must first of all try to create conditions for all these spirit-monads (there are about 36,000 of them, according to the ancient Taoists) so that they do not seek to leave the body. This is achieved by restricting food, special physical and breathing exercises. Also, in order to achieve immortality, the practitioner must perform at least 1200 good deeds, and at the same time one bad deed nullifies everything.

Taoism considers the human body as the sum of energy flows. qi, which is similar to the Universal life force inherent in everything in this world and filling with life all the organs of the human body. The flow of Qi energy in the body correlates with the flow of Qi energy in the environment and can change. Taoism defines a close relationship between the body, mind and environment. Many principles originate from this Taoist postulate. Chinese medicine and various psychophysical practices. Breathing exercises allow you to control the energy in the body. Concentrating while doing the practice, a person must connect his Qi energy with natural Qi. This allows you to improve your internal Qi energy, which in turn contributes to longevity and an increase in human capabilities.

Taoism has come a long way and for today is a traditional Chinese religion. In recent years, a large number of Taoist temples and monasteries have opened. Today, the revival of interest in Taoism is largely due to the special popularity of qi gong techniques, which directly goes back to Taoist internal alchemy. Taoism in modern form is a kind of religion, with magnificent rites and rituals, beautiful temples and the deepest esoteric content based on ancient sacred techniques for improving the body, mind and spirit. And although today it is believed that Taoism is experiencing another decline, however, the purpose of its existence continues to justify itself - it leads more and more seekers to the understanding that it is the inner life of a person that is the most important on this earth.