Vietnam has about 14.5 thousand Buddhist temples and pagodas. About 40 thousand ...
4. Major events of political history
The political history of the Seleucids was determined by the main factors mentioned above. Already Antiochus I had to conduct military operations both in Asia Minor and in southern Syria. In Asia Minor, he defeated the Galatians (278–277 BC), for which he received the title of "Savior" (Soter). The war elephants played the most important role in this victory. Less successful was his war with the Ptolemies (First Syrian War -274-271 BC). Although Antiochus' ally, the Macedonian king Antigonus Gonatus, managed to neutralize the actions of the powerful Egyptian fleet, Antiochus, who was waging a land war, did not manage to achieve any significant success. Ptolemy II retained all his possessions in southern Syria and even expanded his zone of influence in Asia Minor. By the end of the reign of Antiochus I, Pergamum became completely independent.
During the reign of Antiochus II - the successor of Antiochus I - the Second Syrian War broke out. Information about her in the sources is extremely fragmentary. Antiochus II managed to somewhat expand the boundaries of his possessions in Asia Minor and South Syria. At this time, the situation in the East changed dramatically. Around 250 BC NS. there is a falling away from the central government of Bactria and Parthia. The reasons for this lie in the change in the general line of the Seleucid policy. Seleucus I and Antiochus I paid great attention to these areas. New cities were actively built here, borders were strengthened, for example, a wall was built that surrounded the entire Merv oasis. However, in the future, the center of gravity of the Seleucid policy shifted to the West, and the eastern satrapies began to be viewed by the government only as an object of exploitation, obtaining funds for conducting an active policy in the West. The Greek and Macedonian population of these satrapies could not reconcile with this, since the situation here was quite complicated (the threat of nomad invasions, the growth of discontent among the local population), and the further continuation of the short-sighted, from their point of view, policy of siphoning off money and human resources could lead to a catastrophe - the fall of the power of the Greco-Macedonians in these satrapies. The fate of the fallen satrapies develops in different ways. An independent kingdom was created on the territory of Bactria, which is usually called Greco-Bactria. In Parthia, the development of the political situation was sharply complicated by the intervention of the nomads of the Parnian confederation. The guys, led by Arshak, invaded Parthia. In the ensuing struggle, the satrap Andragor died, and the satrapy came under the rule of Arshak. Thus, two independent states emerged on the eastern territories that previously belonged to the Seleucids.
The Seleucid state experienced very severe shocks at the very end of the reign of Antiochus II. When the king, at the end of the Second Syrian War, concluded a peace treaty with Egypt, as a guarantee of friendship between the two states, Antiochus and Ptolemy's daughter Berenice were married. In order to marry an Egyptian princess, Antiochus had to divorce his first wife Laodice, from whom he already had two sons. After the death of Antiochus II, a fierce dynastic struggle begins between the supporters of Laodice and Berenice. Berenice and her newly born son were killed, and the son of Laodice, Seleucus II, had no rivals. However, Ptolemy intervenes in this struggle and the so-called Third Syrian War, or the "War of Laodice", begins. Taking advantage of the dynastic strife that reigned in the Seleucid state, Ptolemy captures all the most important cities in Syria, including the capital of the state of Antioch on Orontes. Seleucus II (246-225 BC) managed to restore his power with great difficulty. Relying on an alliance with the rulers of Pontus and Cappadocia, he recaptured most of the cities captured by Egypt. However, he failed to return Seleucia to Pieria - the main base of the Seleucid fleet - and the port of Antioch on Orontes. The subsequent reign of Seleucus II was filled with a struggle with his younger brother Antiochus Gierax ("kite"), who claimed power in the state. In the end, Gierax was killed by his own mercenaries, and Seleucus II soon died.
After a short reign of Seleucus III, the throne passed to the youngest son of Seleucus II - Antiochus III (223-187 BC). The time of his reign is the time of the highest rise of the Seleucid state, but at the same time the beginning of its fall. The political situation in the early years of the reign of Antiochus III was very difficult. In Asia Minor, power belonged to Achaeus, a relative of Antiochus, who apparently had some reason to claim the royal title. He, however, ceded the throne to Antiochus without a fight, receiving in return power over Asia Minor, which he ruled as an independent ruler. In the East, the satrap of Media Molon and his brother Alexander, the satrap of Persia, revolt against the central government.
Having suppressed the rebellion of Molon, Antiochus III was able to act in the south, and the Fourth Syrian War (219-217 BC) began. The Seleucid army returned Seleucia to Pieria, military operations were successfully deployed in Phenicia and Palestine. However, in the decisive battle at Rafia (217 BC), the Seleucid army was completely defeated. As a result, Antiochus III lost all acquisitions in Syria, with the exception of Seleucia at Pieria.
In subsequent years, Antiochus III waged hostilities in Asia Minor, where he ultimately managed to crush the rule of Achaea. Achaeus himself was captured during the siege of Sardis and was tortured to death. Having thus consolidated his power, Antiochus III began the famous eastern campaign (212–205 BC), the purpose of which was to restore the Seleucid power over the lost eastern provinces. The base for this campaign was Media. To receive Money by order of Antiochus, the temple of Anahita at Ecbatana was robbed, which gave a huge amount of 4000 talents. The result of the campaign was the conquest of Parthia and Greco-Bactria, which, however, retained their statehood as a vassal kingdom to the Seleucids. Then the army of Antiochus crossed the Hindu Kush and invaded India; a treaty was concluded with the local king Sofagasen, according to which Antiochus received Indian war elephants. The Seleucid army made its way back through the territory of southern Iran. Antiochus strengthened the position of his state in the Persian Gulf, from Persia he carried out an expedition to Arabia. Antiochus himself attached such great importance to this campaign that after its completion he took the title of "Great".
After the end of this campaign, Antiochus III again returned to the problem of relations with the Ptolemies. Relying on an alliance with Macedonia, Antiochus was able to capture South Syria, Phenicia and Palestine, and somewhat later a number of Ptolemaic cities in Asia Minor.
It was at this time that Antiochus III collided with Rome. Before that, he had already captured Thrace and supported in Greece all those who were dissatisfied with Roman rule. The Romans began, in turn, to prepare for a clash with Antiochus. The period of diplomatic and propaganda confrontation lasted for some time. Roman diplomacy turned out to be more successful: Pergamum, Rhodes and, most importantly, Macedonia, which was recently defeated by the Romans, and Antiochus especially counted on its support, became Rome's allies. In 192 BC. NS. direct military clashes began. They took place on the territory of Greece, where the Seleucid army landed. However, the miscalculations of the policy of Antiochus III led to the fact that only the Aetolians became his allies. The army of Antiochus III was defeated at Thermopylae. The war was moved to Asia Minor. Here Antiochus was finally defeated at the Battle of Magnesia on the Meander (190 BC). Unable to resist further, he accepted the conditions dictated by the Romans: he renounced almost all Seleucid possessions in Asia Minor, all warships (except 10) and war elephants were given to Rome. In addition, a huge contribution of 15,000 talents had to be paid to Rome within 12 years.
Experiencing extreme financial difficulties, Antiochus III decided to fix the matter in an already tested way: to rob the local temples in Elimand, which caused an uprising of the local population, during which Antiochus himself died. The disintegration of the state re-created by Antiochus began immediately. Greco-Bactria and Parthia separated from the Seleucid state again, Persis fell away, and unrest began in many areas.
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From the book Russian Scientists and Inventors the author Artemov Vladislav VladimirovichMajor events in his life 1866 - Nine-year-old K.E. Tsiolkovsky fell ill with scarlet fever and, due to complications in the ears, almost lost his hearing. 1873 - Father sent K. E. Tsiolkovsky to Moscow for self-education and improvement. 1879 - K.E. Tsiolkovsky passed as an external student
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But as a result, the Russian revolutionaries only hid, learned the art of conspiracy and began preparing for the coming upheavals. The revolutionary movement has long become an international phenomenon: at the end of the 1860s, the world organization International emerged, which coordinated the activities of the workers' movements in different countries... The hopes that internal Russian measures would be able to extinguish the world fire forever were naive. As for patriotic ideas, then in the reign Alexander III the fine line between healthy national feeling and disease-causing nationalism was often broken; in the south, Jewish pogroms broke out more than once.
Important events also took place outside the European continent; one of the main ones is the American Civil War (1861-1865) between the North and the South. The southerners were in favor of preserving the principles of slavery, the northerners were against; meaning Civil war became a struggle for the path that America will take in the 20th century, the path of personal rights and civil liberties, or the path of slavery and racism ...
This was the historical background of the literary achievements, the study of which we have to deal with.
What are the main events of the world and national history the first half of the XIX century predetermined the fate of Russian writers of the golden age? What are the main names, events, dates.
Culture and economics
Culture and economics seem to be opposite poles. As far as the former is “impractical”, sublime, the latter is “down to earth” and aimed at obtaining benefits. And yet they depend on each other and influence each other to the extent that economic development affects the fate, psychology and attitudes of people.
Back in the 16th century, a new type of society began to take root in Europe, based on private property and free enterprise - capitalism. By the end of the 18th century, capitalism led to a rapid growth in urban production and shattered the foundations of feudalism. He destroyed the traditional forms of political and everyday life, taught a person to the idea that his fate does not depend on his origin, not on the habits of previous generations, but above all on his own will, energy, individual qualities.
The only dependence that capitalism recognized was dependence on money. However, the social nature of wealth has also changed. Before wealth reinforced power based on nobility and origin surrounded her with an aura of luxury and omnipotence. Now wealth itself has become an instrument of power; money invaded politics, gradually, imperceptibly began to rule the world. And literature, which until now has been a haven of inspiration, the free leisure of wealthy people - nobles, aristocrats - has become, in the words of Pushkin, "a significant branch of industry." Literary studies became an independent profession; the writers felt the dependence not only and not so much on the favor of a high patron, patron of the arts, as on the reader's demand for their books.
Technical discoveries, without which it is impossible competition- the main mechanism of the market economy - followed one after the other; the word "for the first time" became the key word in the late 18th - early 19th centuries. In 1783, the first balloon flight of the Montgolfier brothers was carried out, at the beginning of the 19th century, the first paddle steamer was built, in 1825 the first Railway, in 1831, Michael Faraday discovered the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction ... Vigorous exploration of the earth's space was going on: round-the-world expeditions were constantly carried out. In 1803–1806, the first Russian "circumnavigation" was carried out under the leadership of Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern; in 1814-1821, Russian explorers and sailors set off for the first time to the shores of Antarctica ...
In the second half of the 19th century, this process became essentially irreversible. Technological breakthroughs led to economic recovery, economic recovery led to technological breakthroughs. In 1863, the world's first metro line was launched (London), five years later the metro was built in New York, then in Budapest, Vienna, Paris. In 1876, Scottish-American Alexander Bell received a patent for a practically usable telephone; some ten or fifteen years will pass, and telephone lines connect cities and countries. In 1897, the Russian physicist Alexander Popov, who improved the radio receiver, began work on the creation of a wireless telegraph. This means that the information space of the Earth will narrow, the distances will shrink: from now on, to transmit urgent information, it will take minutes, and not days, weeks or months.
Almost simultaneously with Bell and Popov, the American Thomas Edison improved the telegraph (and then the telephone), invented the first phonograph (1879), that is, a device for recording and reproducing sound. And in the last years of the 19th century, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel created an internal combustion engine, and the German designer Graf Zeppelin airship- an aeronautical device, the prototype of a modern aircraft. The world has come close to the era of automobiles and the development of airspace.
The symbol of the technological achievements of mankind and at the same time an indication of the path of technological progress that the newest civilization has finally chosen for itself will be the grandiose Eiffel Tower, 123 meters high and weighing 9 thousand tons, built according to the project of A. G. Eiffel in Paris for the World Exhibition of 1889 ...
Science did not stand still either. Scientists made one after another grandiose discoveries in its various fields. In 1829-1830, the Kazan mathematician Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published the results of his many years of work, which turned the concept of the nature of space, which had been considered unshakable for more than 2000 years, since the time of Euclid. In 1869 Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev comprehended one of the basic laws of natural science - the periodic law chemical elements... Frenchman Louis Pasteur, the founder of modern microbiology, developed vaccines against anthrax (1881), rabies (1885). Pasteur's vaccinations made it possible to defeat diseases that were considered incurable until now ...
Of course, these scientific and technological processes interacted with the processes taking place in art only indirectly. But there was one kind of art, to the creation of which artistic culture, technology, science, economics went hand in hand. In 1895, the French inventor Louis Jean Lumière, with the participation of his brother Auguste, created an apparatus for shooting and projecting "moving photographs". It was the first practical movie camera. In the 20th century, cinema will become a new art form and at the same time a powerful industry, combining the technological and creative discoveries of the 19th century.
These discoveries influenced both production and the very course of human life. If a man of the feudal era tried with all his might to preserve the old way of life, established over the centuries, then the man of the era of capitalism was forced to constantly change himself, changing everything around him. Even if he did not want it, even if he rebelled against unstoppable renewal, like the English Luddites of the late 18th and early 19th centuries, who in anger smashed cars that deprived people of jobs. So the foundations of the centuries-old cultural tradition; her smooth, calm movement was blown up from within; the development of literature also accelerated.
How has the development of science, economics, technology influenced culture?
Arts and Literature
But, of course, in the closest way the fate of Russian literature in the 19th century was associated with processes that took place not in economics and politics, but in other types of art. Without the musical creations of the German composer L. van Beethoven (1770–1827) with his heroic symphony, without refined lyrical etudes, nocturnes by the great Pole F. Chopin (1810–1849), without the operatic performances of the genius Italian G. Verdi (1813–1901) and the symphonic discoveries of the Frenchman G. Berlioz (1803–1869), European, including Russian, literature would never have made the qualitative leap to which it “decided” at the beginning of the 19th century.
After all, artistic ideas generated by a major historical era never belong exclusively to any one art form. They literally float in the air and are perceived in one way or another by every art. The internally torn and outwardly harmonious sound of Beethoven's tragic music, in which echoes of the revolutionary upheavals of that time were heard, echoed in the lyrics of F. Schiller (1759-1805), whose poem "Ode to Joy" formed the basis of Beethoven's 9th Symphony. Chopin's attention to small forms, to unfinished fragments, to the nocturnal, mysterious atmosphere was passed on to the best lyricists of the first half of the century ... images of the best prose writers, including Gogol.
In the second half of the 19th century, completely different artistic ideas will triumph in European art: the world of airy fantasy, tragic experiences individual personality will be contrasted with life-like, realistic painting, epic music imbued with the spirit of the nation. The time has come to descend from transcendental heights to the sinful historical land. The most popular Russian artists of the 1830s were K. Bryullov (1799-1852), the author of the monumental tragic painting The Last Day of Pompeii (1830-1833), and A. Ivanov (1806-1858), who devoted his entire creative life to creating the grandiose painting "The Appearance of Christ to the People" (1837-1857). And in the 1840s, the great everyday writer P. Fedotov (1815–1852), who became famous precisely for his attention to detail, to carefully written images from the life of insignificant people, declared himself loudly (The Fresh Cavalier, 1846, The Courtship of a Major , 1848). And the sweet epic P. Tchaikovsky (1840–1893) and one of the founders of the monumental tradition of Russian opera M. Musorgsky (1839–1881), who tried to breathe truly popular power into opera, reigned in the musical world. The writers of that time also got a taste for depicting everyday life and social relations.
An emphasized indifference to lofty themes, a desire for realistic, almost photographic accuracy was also characteristic of the movement Itinerant artists. Their partnership was formed in 1870. The members of the society were the author of the famous "Unknown" I. Kramskoy (1837-1887), as well as I. Repin (1844-1930) - the creator of "Barge Haulers on the Volga" and the ceremonial portrait of Alexander III, V. Surikov (1848-1916), who wrote "Boyarynya Morozov" and many other monumental canvases from Russian history. The outstanding painter V. Vasnetsov (1848-1926) was also associated with the Itinerant movement, who not only willingly worked with genre subjects, copied reality (the painting "From apartment to apartment"), but also created fantastic images of Russian folklore and even painted cathedrals. A much younger artist, the sad landscape painter I. Levitan (1860-1900), also considered himself a Peredvizhnik, under whose brush features of mournful biblical greatness emerged in Central Russian nature.
Remember this when we study the works created by Russian writers of the second half of the 19th century. Writers, like artists and musicians, will pay tribute to the same artistic ideas. They will begin to peer more closely into the life around them, begin to describe it in detail and almost scrupulously.
But art did not stand still. It moved on, opened up new horizons. At the beginning of the 19th century, musicians and painters were inspired by the kingdom of fantasy, the inner world of the artist himself was the main motive of European art. Then it was time to get to know the surrounding reality, to "ground" art. And by the end of the century, the next step was taken in the direction of the unknown, new, unknown. In the 1860s, a new direction emerged in French painting, and in the 1870s and 1880s, a new direction flourished. impressionism(from the word impression - impression). E. Manet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, P. Cezanne returned to the art of painting the freshness of the perception of life, they depicted instant, as if random situations, the play of light and shadow. The main thing in their paintings is not reality itself, but the artist's impression of it. For this, the Impressionists left the workshops and moved the easels to the open air, where colors change every second, where the air trembles and changes the outlines of objects. Impressionism was not limited to the field of painting. He influenced the work of sculptors (genius Frenchman O. Rodin), composers (Frenchmen K. Debussy, M. Ravel). Of course, his creative impulses also resonated in poetry. You will feel this when we talk about Russian lyrics from the very end of the 19th century.
And at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, people of art began to search for a new direction. At its origins was the powerful, slightly scary music of the composer and thinker R. Wagner (1813–1883), prone to hysterical mystery. Gradually, a trend took shape that would determine the fate of artists and musicians of the next generation. This current was named symbolism. You will talk about him in the next class; then you will learn what scientific ideas and doubts influenced the worldview of people at the end of the century and pushed art to search for new artistic ideas. In the meantime, you need to learn a fundamental thing: the new in art arises within the old, lives and develops in parallel with it. So, at the end of the school year, we will read realistic, life-like stories by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, written in the 1880-1890s. But it was in 1890 that the outstanding Russian artist M. Vrubel (1856–1910) painted his main painting "The Demon", the tense and almost painful symbolism of which is already associated with the next era in the development of Russian art ...
Listen to a fragment from Ludwig van Beethoven's 9th Symphony, then a fragment from the opera Boris Godunov by Modest Mussorgsky. Compare the tonality, the general pathos of these pieces of music. Then compare the two paintings - a portrait of Alexander Pushkin by the artist Orest Kiprensky in the 1820-1830s and Pavel Fedotov's "Fresh Cavalier". What is the fundamental difference in the attitude of these artists to life? In what direction did Russian art develop from the first to the second half of the 19th century?
Questions and tasks
1. What political event marked the beginning of the historical era that shaped the views of Russian writers of the 19th century?
2. What ideas inspired the people of that era?
3. What were the main events in Russian history at the end of the 18th – 19th centuries?
4. How did the economy of that time influence culture?
Arkhangelsky A.N. Alexander I. M., 2006 (ZhZL).
The book contains the basic facts of the life of the Russian tsar; his political plans and real deeds.
Decembrists: Selected Works: In 2 volumes / Edition prepared by A.S. Nemzer, O. A. Proskurin. M., 1987.
Of all the anthologies of the literary heritage of the Decembrists, addressed to the general reader, this is the best. Contains program documents of early and late Decembrist societies, works by P.A.Katenin, F.N. Glinka, K.F. Ryleev, A.A. Bestuzhev, A.O. Kornilovich, V.F. Raevsky, N.A. and M. A. Bestuzhevykh, I. I. Pushchin, V. K. Kyukhelbeker, A. I. Odoevsky, G. S. Batenkov, I. D. Yakushkina. Brief but deep comments.
Ludwig E. Napoleon: A Biography. M., 1998.
A master of psychological analysis, Emil Ludwig became famous for the life stories of great people. Marina Tsvetaeva considered his book about Napoleon to be the best of all dedicated to this historical figure.
Tarle E.V. Napoleon: Napoleon's Invasion of Russia // Tarle E.V. Collected Works. M., 1959. T. 7 (or any reprint).
The books of one of the most famous Soviet historians are written easily and extremely exciting. An essay on the life and work of Napoleon is not a popular biography, but a scientific and journalistic work, which nevertheless has become a favorite reading of several generations of Russians.
Tarle E.V. 1812 M., 1959 (or any reprint). A short popular essay on the great events of Russian history.
Troitsky N.A. 1812: The Great Year of Russia. M., 1988. Detailed, detailed presentation of history Patriotic War 1812
Eidelman N. Ya."A moment of glory is coming ...": Year 1789. L., 1989.
This book will help you navigate the main events of the French Revolution and learn about how it was perceived in Russia; it is specially addressed to schoolchildren.
Eidelman N. Ya. Edge of the centuries. M., 2004.
The history of the palace coup, as a result of which Paul I died and his son, the future Alexander I, came to power; detailed and vividly told about the problems faced by Russia at the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries.
Eidelman N. Ya. Your 19th century. M., 1980. Popular essays on the fate of the people of the Pushkin era, addressed to high school students.
Encyclopedia for Children: Art. T. 7. Music. Theatre. Cinema. M., 2000.
A concise overview of the history of art, written especially for schoolchildren.
Sentimentalism. The origins of Russian prose
The crisis of the ideals of the Enlightenment
You already have some ideas about the Age of Enlightenment, about classicism and sentimentalism as artistic methods, about classicist ideas and about a sentimental attitude. Now we will try to trace these principles, ideas and sensations in development, in movement. The difference will be about the same as between static photography and dynamic film. Changes in European literature, as well as in culture as a whole, accumulated gradually, gradually, imperceptibly for the eyes, as a person's face changes imperceptibly during life.
Starting from the 17th century, and even then closer to the middle of it, different groups of writers have emerged who adhere to dissimilar views of art, its tasks and forms of expression. Gradually emerges literary process, in the course of which the usual forms of creativity change, there is a struggle of trends, the search for new artistic ideas ... The life of culture is becoming more and more diverse, more and more complicated.
In Western European literature, these changes begin earlier than in Russia, just as much as earlier capitalism was established in Europe. Russia in the late 18th and early 19th centuries is a feudal country in which bourgeois relations are just emerging. The Russian merchants, manufactures, and breeders do not yet play an independent political and cultural role - they are only accumulating strength for a subsequent breakthrough. And Russian literature of the first half of the 19th century, responsively accepting many trends of European culture, remained much more traditional, much more balanced, much more conservative (in good sense words) than the romantic literature of European countries. She combined all the power of tradition with the freedom of novelty - this was what predetermined her originality and her greatness.
What in Western European literature immediately preceded the rise of Russian culture? What example turned out to be "infectious" for Russian writers who prepared the golden age?
The main event in the intellectual life of Europe in the 18th century was, as you now know, the French Encyclopedia with its pathos of transforming life on a rational basis. But while there were many years of work on it, a lot has changed. The ideas of the encyclopedists "descended" from transcendental intellectual heights into the bourgeois masses, became commonplace formulas, commonplaces. Meanwhile, in the quiet of philosophical and writers' offices, intense mental work was going on. Just as the thinkers of the generation of Diderot and Voltaire became disillusioned with the old picture of the world, so the European intellectuals of the new generation were gradually disillusioned with the ideas of the encyclopedists themselves. The hope was lost both on the omnipotence of the human mind, which is given to every person from birth, and on the power of the experience that a person accumulates during his life. Young thinkers believed less and less in the possibility of "rework" modern world on a rational basis. Increasingly, they recalled the terrible earthquake of 1755 in the Portuguese capital Lisbon, during which the beautiful city was three-quarters destroyed and 60,000 of its inhabitants killed. After that, how can you talk about a harmonious, reasonable world order? What to hope for, what to plan, if at any moment life itself can end? The ideals that inspired the people of the Enlightenment did not seem to stand the test of history.
As if anticipating this turn in the minds of their contemporaries and far ahead of their era, some European writers-enlighteners, already from the 1730s, more and more often bitterly sarcastically over the omnipotence of reason. While the French philosophers were only pondering the ideas that would form the basis of the Encyclopedia, the English prose writer Jonathan Swift was already creating his immortal book, Gulliver's Travels. And here, among other things, he talked about Gulliver's wandering to the island of rational horses, who retained wise justice, calm kindness, connection with nature - everything that humanity has long lost ... So, reason is given to man only as an opportunity, this opportunity can be used, or it can miss out.
Another English novelist Henry Fielding in The Story of Tom Jones, Foundling (1749) told the life story of two brothers. Tom always followed the "call of the heart", the natural disposition of a person to good, and therefore in the end he took place as a person. Blyfill took the best knowledge from the teachers, but did not educate his heart - and therefore natural, natural rationality degenerated in him into petty prudence.
The conclusion was latently brewing: it is necessary to educate, educate not only the mind, but also the senses, otherwise the fragile European civilization would face a catastrophe.
When does the crisis of the Enlightenment begin? How is it expressed?
