To identify the problems of insufficient reproduction or identifying factors ...
4. Basic events of political history
The political history of Seleucidov was determined by those major factors mentioned above. Already Antioch I had to lead military actions in both Malaya Asia and in South Syria. In Malaya Asia, he defeated Galatov (278-277 BC. Er), for which he received the title "Savior" (Sake). Mortar elephants played a crucial role in this victory. His war with Ptolemyes was less successful (the first Syrian war -274-271. BC. Er). Although an ally of Antioch Macedonian Tsar Antagon Gonat managed to neutralize the actions of the powerful Egyptian fleet, Antihau, who led the land war, was failed to achieve any serious success. Ptolemy II retained all his possessions in Southern Syria and even expanded the zone of his influence in Malaya Asia. By the end of the reign of Antioch I, I fully independent became Pergami.
The reign of Antioch II is the successor of Antioch I - the second Syrian war broke out. Information about it in sources is extremely fragmentary. Antihau II managed to somewhat expand the boundaries of their possessions in Malaya Asia and South Syria. At this time, the situation in the East has changed dramatically. About 250 BC e. There is a disappearance from the central government of Bactria and Parfia. The reasons for this lie in the change in the general line of Seleucid's policies. Selevk I and Antioch I paid great attention to these areas. Here, new cities were actively built, borders were strengthened, for example, a wall was built, surrounding the entire Mervian oasis. However, in the future, the center of gravity of Seleucid's policies moves to the West and oriental satrapy begin to be considered by the government only as an object of operation, obtaining funds for conducting active policies in the West. The Greek and Macedonian population of these satrapy could not reconcile with it, since the situation and here was quite difficult (the threat of the invasions of nomads, the growth of the discontent of the local population), and the further continuation of the minor, from their point of view, the policy of pumping money and human resources could lead to a disaster - The fall of the Greco-Macedonian authorities in these satrapy. The fate of the fallen satrapy develops in different ways. On the territory of Bactria, an independent kingdom is created, which is commonly called Greco-Bactria. In Parfia, the development of the political situation sharply complicated by the intervention of nomads of the Parns Confederation. Parns led by Arshak invaded Parphy. In the unfolded struggle, Satrap Andhrogor killed, and satrapy passed under the power of Arshak. Thus, two independent states arise to the earlier seleucads of the eastern territories.
Very heavy shocks survived the Seleucid state at the very end of the reign of Antioch II. When the king, at the end of the Second Syrian War, concluded a peace treaty with Egypt, as a guarantee of friendship between the two states, marriage between Antioch and the daughter of Ptolemy Brenika was concluded. In order to marry the Egyptian princess, Antihau had to be divorced with his first wife Laodik, from which he had already had two sons. After the death of Antioch II, a fierce dynastic struggle begins between the supporters of Laodice and Bereniki. Brenika and her newly born son were killed, and the son of Laodice Selievka II was no longer rivals. However, the Ptolemy interferes with this struggle and the so-called third Syrian war begins, or the "Laulic War". Taking advantage of dynastic straightening in the village of Seleucid state, Ptolemy captures all the most important cities in Syria, including the capital of the State Antioch in Oronte. Seleuc II (246-225 BC) with great difficulty managed to restore its power. Based on the Union with the rulers of Ponta and Cappadocia, he dismantled most of the cities captured by Egypt. However, he could not return Seleucia in Pieria - the main base of the Seleucid Fleet - and the port of Antioch in Oronte. Further Board of Selevka II was filled with the struggle with his younger brother Antiochum Gyrax ("Korean"), who claimed power in the state. In the end, Gierax was killed by his own mercenaries, Sielevka II soon died.
After a brief reign of Selevka III, the throne moved to the younger son of Selevka II- Antioch III (223-187 BC.). The time of his reign is the time of the highest lift of the Seleucid state, but at the same time the beginning of its fall. The political situation in the first years of the reign of Antioch III was very complex. In Malaya Asia, the power belonged to Achey - a relative of Antioch, apparently had some reason to qualify for the royal title. He, however, without the struggle gave way to Antihau, having received the power in return over the Malaya Asia, which he managed as an independent ruler. In the east against the Central Government, the Molon Molon Satrap and his brother Alexander - Satrap Persida.
Having suppressed Molon's uprising, Antioch III was able to act in the south, the fourth Syrian war began (219-217 BC). The Seleucid Army returned Seleucia in Pieria, military actions were successfully deployed in Piecia and Palestine. However, in the decisive battle of Rafia (217 BC. E.) The Seleucid army was completely broken. As a result, Antiochus III lost all acquisitions in Syria, with the exception of Seleucia in Pieria.
In subsequent years, Antihai III leads hostilities in Malaya Asia, where he ultimately managed to crush the power of Ahey. Ahey himself was captured during the siege of the Sard and devoted to the painful execution. Having strengthened his power thus, Antioch III began the famous oriental campaign (212-205 BC), the purpose of which was the restoration of the Seleucian authorities over the eastern provinces. The base for this campaign served by the mussel. To obtain funds by order of Antioch, the Anachitan temple was robbed in Ekbataan, which gave a huge amount of 4,000 talents. The result of the campaign was the conquest of Parphy and Greek-Bactria, which, however, retained their statehood as vassal in relation to the villages of the kingdom. Then Antioch's army moved Hindukush and invaded the limits of India; With the local king Sofagasen, a contract was concluded, according to which Antiochus received Indian combat elephants. The Return Road of the Seleucid Army made through the territory of the southern Iran. Antioch has strengthened the position of his state in the Persian Gulf, from the Persis, he carried out an expedition to Arabia. The Antih himself gave such a great importance to this campaign that after his end, the title of "Great" took.
After the end of this campaign, Antioch III returned to the problem of relationships with Ptolemy. Based on the Union with Macedonia, Antioch was able to capture South Syria, Decoration and Palestine, and a few later than a number of cities belonging to Ptolemyes in Malaya Asia.
It was at that time that Antihai III ran into Rome. Before that, he already captured Thrace and supported all those who were dissatisfied with the Roman power in Greece. The Romans began, in turn, prepare for a collision with Antioch. Some time lasted a period of diplomatic and propaganda confrontation. Roman diplomacy turned out to be more successful: the Allies of Rome became Pergami, Rhodes and, which is especially important, Macedonia, recently victims of the defeat from the Romans, to support which was particularly calculated by Antioch. In 192 BC e. Stayed direct military collisions. They took place in Greece, where the Seleucid Army landed. However, the miscalculations of Antioch III policies led to the fact that only Etolians became its allies. The army of Antioch III suffered a defeat during fermopils. War was transferred to Maly Asia. Here, Antioch was finally crushed in the battle of Magnesia in Meandra (190 BC). Without the opportunity to resist further, he accepted the conditions dictated by the Romans: he refused almost all Seleucid possessions in Malaya Asia, Rome issued all the combat ships (except 10) and combat elephants. In addition, for 12 years it was necessary to pay Rome with a huge contact of 15 thousand talents.
Testing extreme financial difficulties, Antioch III decided to improve the case already under the trusted way: to rob the local temples in Elimand, which caused the uprising of the local population, during which Antih himself was killed. Immediately began the disintegration of Power by recreated Antioch. Greco-Bactria and Parphy, Persida disappeared from the village of Seleucidian state, the glance began in many areas.
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But as a result, Russian revolutionaries have just slept, learned to the art of conspiracy and began preparations for the coming upheavals. The revolutionary movement has long been an international phenomenon: in the late 1860s, the World Organization arose, which coordinated the activities of working movements in different countries. Hope on the fact that domestic Russian measures will be able to forever straighten the world fire, were naive. As for patriotic ideas, Alexander III is often disturbed by a subtle line between a healthy national feeling and pathogenic nationalism; In the south, Jewish pogroms broke out more than once.
Important events occurred outside the European continent; One of the main - civil war in the United States (1861-1865) between the North and South. Southerners advocated the preservation of the principles of slavery, Northerners against; meaning Civil War It became the struggle for the path in which America will go in the XX century, the path of personal rights and civil liberties or the path of slavery and racism ...
Such was the historical background of literary accomplishments, whose study of which we have to do.
What are the main events of world and domestic history The first half of the XIX century predetermined the fate of the Russian Writers of the Golden Age? Name the main names, events, dates.
Culture and economics
Culture and economics seem opposite poles. As far as the first is "impractical," is elevated, so the last "landed" and is aimed at receiving benefits. And yet they depend on each other and each other affect the extent to which economic development affects the fate, psychology and the views of people.
Back in the XVI century, a new type of society based on private property and free enterprise began to be approved in Europe. capitalism. By the end of the XVIII century, capitalism led to the rapid growth of urban production, loosened the foundations of feudalism. He destroyed traditional forms of political and domestic life support, taught a person to think that his fate did not depend on its origin, not from the habits of previous generations, but primarily from his own will, energy, individual qualities.
The only dependence that capitalism recognized is dependence on money. However, the social nature of wealth has also changed. Formerly wealth reinforced Power based on audience and origin was surrounded by its luxury halo and omnipotence. Now wealth itself has become a tool of power; Money invaded politics, began to gradually, imperceptibly rule the world. And literature, which has so far been a shelter of inspiration, free leisure of secured people - nobles, aristocrats, - turned into the expression of Pushkin, in the "significant industry". Literary classes have become an independent profession; Writers felt the dependence not only and not so much from the favor of a high patron, the patron, as far as the reader's demand for their books.
Technical discoveries without which it is impossible competition - the main mechanism of the market economy, they followed one after another; The word "for the first time" became the key in the late XVIII - early XIX century. In 1783, for the first time, a flight in the balloon of the Mongolfier brothers was carried out, at the beginning of the XIX century, the first wheel steamer was built, in 1825 the first was laid railwayIn 1831, Michael Faraday opened the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction ... Energetic development of earthly space was going on: round-the-world expeditions were constantly accomplished. In 1803-1806, the first Russian "Archway" was carried out under the leadership of Ivan Fedorovich Kruzenshtern; In 1814-1821, Russian researchers and sailors first went to the shores of Antarctica ...
In the second half of the XIX century, this process took, essentially irreversible. Technological breakthroughs led to the rise in the economy, the rise of the economy led to technological breakthroughs. In 1863, the first Metro line in the world (London) was put in the world, five years later, the subway was built in New York, then in Budapest, Vienna, Paris. In 1876, the American Scottish origin Alexander Bell received a patent for practically useful telephone; will be some ten - fifteen years, and telephone lines They will contact among themselves cities and countries. In 1897, the Russian physicist Alexander Popov, improved the radio, will begin work on creating a wireless telegraph. So, the informational space of the Earth is narrowed, the distance will be squeezed: after all, it is from now on to convey urgent information, you will need moments, not days, weeks or months.
Almost simultaneously with Bella and Popov, American Thomas Edison improved the telegraph (then the phone), invented the first phonograph (1879), that is, a device for recording and playing sound. And in recent years of the XIX century, the German engineer Rudolph Diesel created an internal combustion engine, and the German constructor Graf Zeppelin airship - aeronautic device, prototype of a modern aircraft. The world came close to the automotive era and to the development of airspace.
The symbol of technological achievements of mankind and at the same time indicating that the path of technical progress, which finally chose the latest civilization for himself, will be a grand Eiffel Tower, 123 meters high and weighing 9 thousand tons, built on the project A. G. Eiffel in Paris for the World Exhibition 1889 .
Did not stand in place and science. Scientists committed one of the other grand discovery in different areas. In 1829-1830, Kazan Mathematics Nikolai Ivanovich Lobachevsky published the results of his many years of work, overwhelming the ideas about the nature of the space, which were considered unshakable over 2000 years, from the time of Euclide. In 1869, Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev compared one of the main laws of natural science - Periodic law chemical elements. The Frenchman Louis Pasteur, the founder of modern microbiology, developed vaccines against Siberian ulcers (1881), rabies (1885). Pasteur vaccinations made it possible to defeat the diseases that were perfected incurable ...
Of course, these scientific and technological processes interacted with the processes that occurred in art only indirectly. But there was one kind of art, to the creation of which artistic culture, technique, science, the economy went hand in hand. In 1895, the French inventor Louis Jean Lumiere, with the participation of Brother Auguste, created a device for shooting and projecting "moving photos." It was the first movie, suitable for practical use. In the 20th century, the movie will become a new type of art and at the same time a powerful industry in the industry, combining the technological and creative discoveries of the XIX century.
These discovery influenced production, and the course of human life itself. If the person of the feudal era, struggling to preserve the old stacked, established for centuries, then the man of the capitalism era was forced to constantly change himself, changing everything around himself. Even if I did not want this, even if the rebalance against an inexperienced update, as the English Luddite of the late XVIII - the beginning of the XIX century, in the anger we broke the cars that deprived people of jobs. So gradually destroyed the foundations of the centuries-old cultural tradition; Its smooth, calm movement was blown up from the inside; The development of literature also accelerated.
How did the development of science, the economy affect the culture?
Art and literature
But, of course, in the most close way, the fate of Russian literature in the XIX century were related to the processes that occurred not in economics and politics, but in other types of art. Without the musical creations of the German composer L. Van Beethoven (1770-1827) with his heroic simphonism, without sophisticated lyrical etudes, Ncturuns of the Grand Pole F. Chopin (1810-1849), without the opera accomplishments in the brilliant Italian J. Verdi (1813-1901) and The symphonic discoveries of the Frenchman G. Berlioz (1803-1869) European, including Russian, literature would never accomplish that qualitative jerk, which she "decided" at the beginning of the XIX century.
After all, artistic ideas generated by a large historical era, never belong exceptionally to any one type of art. They are literally worn in the air and are somehow perceived by every art. Internally broken and externally harmonious sound of the tragic Music of Beethoven, in which the echoes of revolutionary shocks were heard of the pore, responded in the lyrics of F. Schiller (1759-1805), whose poem "Ode to joy" was based on the 9th Symphony of Beethoven. The attention of Chopin to small forms, to unfinished fragments, to the night, the mysterious atmosphere passed the best lyrics of the first half of the century ... And strange, performed inner horror before the life of the drawings, engraving and paintings of the Spanish artist F. Goya (1746-1828) prepared artistic soil for fantastic Images of the best prosaikov, including Gogol.
In the second half of the XIX century in European art, completely different artistic ideas will triumph: the world of air fantasy, tragic experiences individual person Life-like, realistic painting, epic, imbued with the spirit of nationwide music will be opposed. It is time to descend from the transcendental heights of a sinful historical land. The most popular Russian artists of the 1830s were K. Bryullov (1799-1852), the author of the monumental-tragic canvas "Last Day Pompeii" (1830-1833), and A. Ivanov (1806-1858), the whole creative life posted on the creation The grandiose painting "The phenomenon of Christ to the people" (1837-1857). And in the 1840s, the Grand Fedotov (1815-1852) P. Fedotov (1815-1852), who became famous for his attention to the details, to carefully registered images from the life of insignificant people ("Fresh Cavalier", 1846, "Major" , 1848). And in the musical world, Sweet Epic P. Tchaikovsky reigned (1840-1893) and one of the creators of the monumental tradition of the Russian opera M. Mussorgsky (1839-1881), which tried to breathe in the opera art of truly popular power. Writers of the pore also felt the taste for the image of everyday life, social relations.
Stressed indifference to sublime topics, the desire for realistic, almost photographic accuracy distinguished and movement movie artists. Their partnership was formed in 1870. The author of the Society was the author of the famous "Unknown" I. Kramskaya (1837-1887), as well as I. Repin (1844-1930) - the creator of "Burlakov on the Volga" and the parade portrait of Alexander III, V. Surikov (1848-1916), who wrote "Boyar Morozov" and many other monumental canvases from Russian history. A bright painter V. Vasnetsov (1848-1926) was connected with the movement of the animals (1848-1926), who not only hardly worked with genre plots, copied reality (the picture "from the apartment on the apartment"), but also created fantastic images of Russian folklore and even painted cathedrals. A well-old artist, sad landscape officer I. Levitan (1860-1900) considered himself and a much more young artist (1860-1900), under the brush of which in the mid-Russian nature, the features of mournful biblical magnitude appeared.
Remember this when we study the works created by Russian writers of the second half of the XIX century. Writers, like artists and musicians, will give tribute to the same artistic ideas. They will become more closely peering into the surrounding life, will begin in detail and almost scrupulously describe it.
But art did not stand in place. It moved on, opened new horizons. At the beginning of the XIX century, musicians and painters animated the kingdom of fantasy, the inner world of the artist himself was the main motive of European art. Then it came to know the surrounding reality, "ground" art. And by the end of the century, the next step was made in the direction of the uncharted, new, unknown. In the 1860s, in French painting originated, and in 1870-1880 a new direction flourished impressionism (From the word impression - impression). E. Mane, O. Renoir, E. Degas, P. Cezann returned to the picturesque art of freshness of life perception, they portrayed instant, as if random situations, the game of light and shadows. The main thing in their pictures is not the reality itself, but the impression of the artist from her. For this, the impressionists left the workshops and moved easels to open air, where the paints change every second, where the air is trembling and changes the outlines of objects. Impressionism was not limited to the sphere of painting. He influenced the creativity of sculptors (the brilliant Frenchman O. Roden), composers (French K. Debussy, M. Ravel). Of course, his creative impulses responded in poetry. You will feel this when we talk about Russian lyrics of the very end of the XIX century.
And at the turn of the XIX and XX centuries, people of art began to search for a new direction. His origins had a powerful, slightly scary, prone to the oversized mystery of the music of the composer and thinker R. Wagner (1813-1883). Gradually was drawn up the current, which will determine the fate of artists and musicians of the next generation. This flow was called symbolism. You will talk about it already in the next class; At the same time, you will learn what scientific ideas and doubts have an impact on the worldview of people of the end of the century and pushed art to the search for new artistic ideas. In the meantime, you need to learn the principal thing: new in art is born within the old, lives and develops in parallel with it. So, at the end of the school year, we will read realistic, vital stories Anton Pavlovich Chekhov, written in 1880-1890. But it was in 1890 that the outstanding Russian artist M. Vrubel (1856-1910) will write its main picture "demon", intense and almost painful symbolism of which is already connected with the next epoch in the development of Russian art ...
Listen to a fragment from the 9th Symphony of Ludwig Van Beethoven, then a fragment from the opera Modest Musorgsky "Boris Godunov". Compare the tonality, the overall pathos of these musical works. Then compare the two pictures - the portrait of A. S. Pushkin of the artist of the artist of the 1820-1830s of Ores Cyprinen and "Fresh Cavallar" Pavel Fedotov. What is the fundamental difference in relation to these artists to life? In which direction is Russian art from the first half of the XIX century developed?
Questions and tasks
1. What political event marked the beginning of the historical era, which formed the views of Russian writers of the XIX century?
2. What ideas inspired the people of that era?
3. What were the main events of Russian history of the end of the XVIII-XIX century?
4. How did the economy of that time affect the culture?
Arkhangelsky A. N. Alexander I. M., 2006 (ZhZL).
The book contains the main facts of the life of the Russian king; His political intentions and real acts.
Decembrists: Selected Works: at 2 tons. / Edition prepared A. S. Nemzer, O. A. Proskurin. M., 1987.
Of all the anthology of the literary heritage of the Decembrists addressed to the mass reader, this is the best. Contains the program documents of the early and late Decembrist societies, the compositions of P. A. Katrenina, F. N. Glinka, K. F. Ryleva, A. A. Bestuzheva, A. O. Kornilovich, V. F. Raevsky, N. A. and M. A. Bestuzhev, I. I. Pushchina, V. K. Kyhehelbecker, A. I. Odoyevsky, G. S. Bathoney, I. D. Yakushkin. Brief, but deep comments.
Ludwig E. Napoleon: biography. M., 1998.
Master of Psychological Analysis, Emil Ludwig became famous for the lives of great people. Marina Tsvetaeva considered his book about Napoleon as the best of all dedicated to this historical personality.
Tarla E. V. Napoleon: Napoleon's invasion to Russia // Tarla E. V. Collected Works. M., 1959. T. 7 (or any reprint).
The books of one of the most famous Soviet historians are written easily and extremely fascinating. Sketch of the life and activities of Napoleon is not a popular biography, and scientific and journalistic work, which nevertheless has become a favorite reading of several generations of Russians.
Tarla E. V. 1812 M., 1959 (or any reissue). A brief popular essay of the great events of Russian history.
Troitsky N. A. 1812: Great Year of Russia. M., 1988. A detailed, detailed presentation of the history of the Patriotic War of 1812.
Eidelman N. Ya. "The moment of glory comes ...": year 1789th. L., 1989.
This book will help you navigate in the main events of the French revolution and learn how they perceived it in Russia; It is specially addressed to schoolchildren.
Eidelman N. Ya. Brummy. M., 2004.
The history of the palace coup, as a result of which Paul I died and his son came to power, the future Alexander I; In detail and brightly described about the problems that Russia stood at the turn of the XVIII and XIX centuries.
Eidelman N. Ya. Your XIX century. M., 1980. Popular essays about the fate of people of Pushkin era addressed to high school students.
Encyclopedia for children: art. T. 7. Music. Theatre. Movie. M., 2000.
A brief review of the history of art, written specifically for schoolchildren.
Sentimentalism. The origins of Russian prose
Crisis of ideals of enlightenment
You already have some ideas about the Epoch of Enlightenment, Classicism and Sentimentalize as artistic methods, about classic ideas and on sentimental globalism. Now we will try to trace these principles, ideas and sensations in development, in motion. The difference will be about the same that there is between a static photo and a dynamic film. Changes in European literature, as in the culture as a whole, accumulated gradually, gradually, imperceptibly for the eyes, as the person's face is imperceptibly changing.
Starting from the XVII century, and even closer to its middle, there are different groups of writers who adhere to the observance of views on art, on its tasks and forms of expression. Gradually emerge literary process During which the usual forms of creativity are changing, directions are struggled, the search for new art ideas ... The life of the culture is becoming more diverse, everything is more complicated.
In Western European literature, these changes begin earlier than in Russia, exactly so much as early as capitalism is approved in Europe. Russia of the late XVIII and early XIX century is a feudal country in which bourgeois relationships only originate. Russian merchants, manufactory, breeders still do not play an independent political and cultural role - they only accumulate forces for the subsequent jerk. And the Russian literature of the first half of the XIX century, responsively perceived many of the trends of European culture, remained much more traditionally, much balanced, much more conservatively (in good sense Words) than romantic literature of European countries. She connected all the power of the tradition with the freedom of novelty - this was predetermined by her originality and her greatness.
What is directly preceded by the rise of Russian culture directly in Wester-European literature? What example was "infectious" for domestic writers who prepared the golden age?
The main event of the intellectual life of Europe of the XVIII century became, as you now know, the French "Encyclopedia" with her pathos of life conversion at a reasonable principle. But so far a long-term work on it has passed, a lot has time to change. The ideas of the encyclopedists "descended" from the transcendental intellectual heights in the bourgeois masses became crowded formulas, general places. Meanwhile, in the silence of philosophical and writing cabinets there was a tense mental job. As the thinkers of the generation of Didro and Voltaire were disappointed in the previous picture of the world, so European new generation intellectuals were gradually disappointed in the ideas of the encyclopedists themselves. Lose hope and the omnipotence of the human mind, which is given to every person from birth, and the power of the experience that man accumulates during his life. Young thinkers still believed in the possibility of "alterations" modern Mira on rational principles. Increasingly, they remembered the terrible earthquake of 1755 in the capital of Portugal Lisbon, during which the beautiful city was destroyed for three quarters, and 60,000 of its inhabitants died. How can I argue about the harmonious, intelligent world order? What is hoping to plan, if at any moment my life itself can break? Those ideals who inspired people of the Epoch of Enlightenment seemed to not withstand testing history.
As if the presentation of this turn in the minds of contemporaries and a much dying of their era, some European enlighteners writers since the 1730s have become more and more often with bitterness over the miselement of the mind. So far, French philosophers only thought about the ideas that will be slandered by the "Encyclopedia", English Prosais Jonathan Swift has already created his immortal book "Hollyvier journey". And here, among other things, he told about the journey of Gullyer to the island of reasonable horses, who retained the wise justice, calm kindness, connection with nature - all that humanity has long lost ... It means that the mind is given a man only as an opportunity, this opportunity can be used, and you can use it miss.
Another English Prosascript Henry Fielding in the novel "History of Tom Jones, Found" (1749) He told the history of the life of two brothers. Tom always followed the "call of heart", the natural predisposition of man to good and therefore eventually took place as a person. Blifil took the best knowledge from teachers, but did not bring up his heart - and therefore natural, natural reasonableness was degenerated in it into petty calculation.
The conclusion was impressed: it is necessary to upbringing, education is not only reason, but also feelings, otherwise the fragile European civilization threatens a catastrophe.
When does the crisis of the Epoch of Enlightenment begins? What is he expressed?
