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Horney's three main considerations were the impetus for shaping the sociocultural view of personality.
First, she rejected Freud's statements about women and especially his assertion that their biological nature predetermines penis envy. This was the starting point for her divergence from the orthodox Freudian position.
Secondly, during her time in Chicago and New York, she exchanged views with such eminent scientists as Erich Fromm, Margaret Mead and Harry Stack Sullivan. Thanks to them, her conviction that sociocultural conditions have a profound impact on the development and functioning of the individual was strengthened.
Third, her clinical observations of patients in Europe and the United States showed striking differences in their personality dynamics, which confirmed the influence of cultural factors. These observations led her to the conclusion that unique styles of interpersonal relations are the basis of personality disorders.
Personal development
Horney agreed with Freud's opinion about the importance of childhood experiences for the formation of the structure and functioning of the personality in an adult. Despite the commonality of the basic positions, both scientists disagreed on the specificity of personality formation. Horney did not accept Freud's claims about the existence of universal psychosexual stages and that the child's sexual anatomy dictates a certain direction for the further development of the personality. According to her beliefs, the decisive factor in the development of personality is the social relationship between the child and the parents.
According to Horney, childhood is characterized by two needs: the need for satisfaction and the need for security.Satisfaction encompasses all basic biological needs: food, sleep, and so on. Although Horney attached importance to satisfying needs for physical survival, she did not believe that they played a major role in the formation of personality. Central to a child's development is the need for safety. In this case, the underlying motive is to be loved, desired, and protected from danger or a hostile world. Horney believed that the child is completely dependent on his parents to meet this need for safety. When parents show true love and warmth to their child, their need for safety is satisfied. Thanks to this, a healthy personality is most likely formed. Conversely, if the behavior of the parents interferes with the satisfaction of the need for security, pathological development of the personality is very likely.
The main result of parental abuse is the development of a child's attitude basal hostility.
Repressed feelings of resentment and hostility caused by the parents do not exist on their own: they manifest themselves in all the child's relationships with other people, both now and in the future. In such a case, they say that the child has basal anxietyfeeling lonely and helpless in the face of a potentially dangerous world.Basal anxiety - this intense and pervasive feeling of insecurity - is one of Horney's foundational concepts.
Final comments
Fromm's theory attempts to show how vast sociocultural influences interact with unique human needs in the process of personality formation. His fundamental thesis was that the structure of character (personality types) is associated with certain social structures.
254 Chapter 5. Ego-psychology and related directions in personality theory
Adhering to humanistic traditions, he also argued that as a result of radical social and economic changes, it was possible to create a society in which both individual and social needs would be satisfied.
Unfortunately, most of Fromm's theoretical beliefs, especially his theory of character development, were formulated so globally that they are beyond the reach of empirical study. In fact, very few such attempts have been made. Case studies and other cultures are the only source of evidence for his concept. Nevertheless, Fromm's books have not lost their popularity both in the professional environment and among ordinary readers around the world. Countless people find his compelling and thought-provoking commentary on a wide range of social issues to be in tune with modernity.
Karen Horney, like Adler, Jung, Erickson, and Fromm, followed the fundamental principles of Freud's theory. The most important question on which she
discussed with Freud, this is the decisive role of physical anatomy in determining the psychological differences between women and men. Horney
believed that Freud's statements about the psychology of women, especially his statements that women are driven by “penis envy”, are illogical and tied to the culture of Vienna in the 19th century. Horney also objected to his theory of instincts and believed that psychoanalysis should adhere to a broader sociocultural orientation.
In her works, Horney emphasized the importance of cultural and social
influences on personality. Although her theory applies more to the sick
neuroses than healthy individuals, many of her ideas led to significant
discoveries in understanding individual differences and interpersonal relationships.
BIOGRAPHY
Karen Homey, née Danielson, was born in Germany near Hamburg in 1885. Her father was a sea captain, a deeply religious man, convinced of the superiority of men over women. Her mother, a Danish, attractive and free-thinking woman, was 18 years younger
her husband. For most of his childhood and adolescence, Horney was tormented by doubts about their merits, aggravated by a feeling of external unattractiveness.
She compensated for her feelings of inferiority by becoming an excellent student.
She later admitted: "Since I could not become a beauty, I decided to become smart."
At the age of 14, Horney made the decision to become a doctor. The goal was achieved in 1906 when she entered the University of Freiburg and became the first wife of Karen Horney: a sociocultural theory of personality 255
Karen Horney (18854952).
a nation in Germany that received permission to study medicine. There she met
Oscar Horney, a political science student, and married him in 1910. Horney
received her medical degree from the University of Berlin in 1915. For the next five years, she studied psychoanalysis at the Berlin Psychoanalytic Institute. Almost all this time Horney suffered from severe bouts of depression and once, as her biographers report, she was saved by her husband while trying
suicide.
By 1926, Horney's marriage was beginning to deteriorate as her avalanche grew.
personal problems. The sudden death of her brother, the divorce of her parents and their death within one year, growing doubts about the value of psychoanalysis, all this led her to a completely depressed state. However, after a divorce from
her husband in 1927, she began a successful career as a psychiatrist. She worked at the Berlin Psychiatric Institute and was very passionate about teaching, writing and traveling.
In 1932, during the Great Depression, Horney moved to the United
States. She was hired as Assistant Director at the Chicago Psychoanalytic Institute. Two years later, she moved to New York, where she read
lectures at the New York Psychoanalytic Institute. The growing divergence of her views with the Freudian doctrine forced the institute to disqualify her as an instructor in psychoanalysis in 1941. Soon after it
she founded the American Institute of Psychoanalysis. Horney was the dean of this
institute until his death from cancer in 1952.
SOCIOCULTURAL THEORY: BASIC CONCEPTS AND PRINCIPLES
The impetus for the formation of a sociocultural outlook on personality was three
horney's main considerations. First, she rejected Freud's statements.
concerning women and especially his claim that their biological
256 Chapter 5. Ego-psychology and related directions in the theory of personality nature predetermines envy of the penis. This was the starting point for her divergence from the orthodox Freudian position. Secondly, during the stay
in Chicago and New York, she exchanged views with such eminent scientists as Erich Fromm, Margaret Mead and Harry Stack Sullivan. Thanks to them I got stronger
her conviction that socio-cultural conditions have a profound impact
on the development and functioning of the individual. Third, her clinical follow-up to patients in Europe and the United States has shown
striking differences in their personality dynamics, which was a confirmation
influence of cultural factors. These observations led her to the conclusion that unique styles of interpersonal relationships are the basis of personality disorders.
Personal development Horney agreed with Freud's opinion on the importance of childhood experiences for the formation of the structure and functioning of the personality in an adult.
Despite the commonality of the main positions, both scholars disagreed on
the question of the specifics of personality formation. Horney did not accept statements
Freud on the existence of universal psychosexual stages and that the sexual anatomy of the child dictates a certain direction for the further development of the personality. According to her beliefs, the decisive factor in the development
personality is the social relationship between the child and the parent.
According to Horney, childhood is characterized by two needs: the need for satisfaction and the need for security (Nogpeu, 1939). Satisfaction
covers all basic biological needs: food, sleep, etc. Although Horney
attached importance to meeting the needs for providing physical
survival, she did not believe that they play a major role in the formation of personality. Central to a child's development is the need for safety. In this case, the underlying motive is to be loved, desired, and protected from danger or a hostile world. Horney believed that in satisfaction
for this safety need, the child is completely dependent on his parents.
If parents show true love and warmth towards their child, then
the most satisfied is his need for security. Thanks to this, she is likely to form a healthy personality. Conversely, if the behavior of the parents interferes with the satisfaction of the need for safety, it is very likely
pathological personality development. Many moments in the behavior of parents can frustrate the child's need for safety: unstable, crazy rabble behavior, ridicule, failure to fulfill promises, excessive guardianship, as well as a clear preference for his brothers and sisters [Nogpeu, 1945]. but
the main result of such parental abuse is the development of a basal hostility attitude in the child. In this case, the child finds himself between two fires: he depends on his parents and at the same time
feels resentment and resentment towards them. This conflict
activates defense mechanisms such as repression. As a result
the behavior of a child who does not feel safe in the parental family is guided by feelings of helplessness, fear, love and guilt that play the role of psycho Karen Horney: a sociocultural theory of personality 257
logical defense, the purpose of which is to suppress hostile feelings towards parents in order to survive [Nogpeu, 1950: 18].
Unfortunately, suppressed feelings of resentment and hostility are the reason
the emergence of which the parents are, do not exist by themselves: they appear in all the child's relationships with other people, both in the present and in the future.In this case, they say that the child has a basal anxiety, a feeling of loneliness and helplessness in the face of potential but a dangerous world≫ [Nogpeu, 1950, p. 18] Basal anxiety - this intense and pervasive feeling of insecurity - is one of Horney's fundamental concepts.
Basal anxiety: the etiology of neuroses
Unlike Freud, Horney did not believe that anxiety is a necessary component of the human psyche. On the contrary, she argued that anxiety arises from a lack of security in interpersonal relationships. In general, according to Horney, everything that destroys the child's sense of security in relations with parents leads to basal anxiety.Accordingly, the etiology of neurotic behavior should be sought in the broken relationship between the child and the parent. Remember, if a child feels love and according to Horpy, basal anxiety
develops based on feelings
loneliness, helplessness and abandonment in a hostile
environment.
(E. Budd Giay Jeioboam)
258 Chapter 5. Ego psychology and related directions in personality theory self-acceptance, he feels safe and is likely to develop
fine. On the other hand, if he does not feel safe, he develops hostility towards his parents, and this hostility, in the end
eventually, transformed into a basal anxiety, will be directed to everyone. From Horney's point of view, pronounced basal anxiety in a child leads to the formation of neurosis in an adult.
Neurotic Needs: Strategies to Compensate for Basal Anxiety
To cope with the feelings of inadequate security, helplessness, and hostility inherent in basal anxiety, the child is often forced to resort to different defensive strategies. Horney described ten such strategies, called neurotic needs, or neurotic tendencies.
They are presented in table. 5-3 along with appropriate behaviors.
Table 5-3. Horney's Ten Neurotic Needs
Excess demand
1. In love and approval
2. In a leading partner
3. In clear restrictions
4, In power
5. Exploiting others
6. In public recognition
7. Admiring yourself
8. In ambition
9. In self-sufficiency and independence 10. In impeccability and irrefutability Manifestations in behavior
An insatiable desire to be loved and admired by others; increased sensitivity and susceptibility to criticism, rejection, or hostility
Overdependence on others and fear of rejection or stay
lonely; overestimating love - the conviction that love
can solve everything
Preference for a lifestyle in which
restrictions and established order matter; undemanding, contentment with little and submission to others
Domination and control over others as an end in itself; contemptuous
attitudes toward weakness Fear of being used by others, or fear of looking “dumb” in their eyes, but unwillingness to do anything to outwit them Desire to be admired by others; self-image is formed depending on social status
The desire to create an embellished image of yourself, devoid of flaws and limitations; the need for compliments and flattery from the outside
surrounding
Strong desire to be the best, regardless of the consequences;
fear of failure
Avoiding any relationship that involves taking on any obligations; distance from everyone and everything
Attempts to be morally infallible and impeccable in all respects; maintaining an impression of perfection and virtue
Karen Horney: A Sociocultural Theory of Personality 259
Horney argued that these needs are present in all people. They can help you deal with the feelings of rejection, hostility, and helplessness inevitable in life. However, the neurotic, responding to various situations, uses them inflexibly. He forcibly relies on only one of all possible needs. A healthy person, on the other hand, easily replaces one another if
changing circumstances require it. For example, when a need for love arises, a healthy person tries to satisfy it. When arises
the need for power, he also tries to satisfy it, and so on. Horney
explains that a neurotic, in contrast to a healthy person, selects one need and uses it indiscriminately in all social interactions. ≪If he
needs love, then he must receive it from a friend and foe, from an employer and a shoe shine [Nogpeu, 1942, p. 39]. In short, the need is definitely neurotic, if a person tirelessly tries to transform
her satisfaction in the way of life.
Targeting people, from people and against people
In her book, Our Internal Conflicts (1945), Horney divided the list
out of ten needs into three main categories. Each of the categories represents a strategy for optimizing interpersonal relationships in order to achieve a sense of security in the outside world. In other words, their action
is to reduce anxiety and achieve a more or less acceptable life. In addition, each strategy is accompanied by a certain basic orientation in relations with other people.
People-oriented: Compliant type. People-centeredness presupposes a style of interaction that is characterized by dependence, indecision, and helplessness. A man Horney considers compliant
type, is guided by an irrational belief: "If I yield, I will not be touched" [Nogpeu, 1937, p. 97].
The compliant type needs to be needed, loved, protected and guided. Such people form relationships with the sole purpose of avoiding feelings of loneliness, helplessness, or uselessness. However, behind their courtesy, there may be a repressed urge to behave aggressively. Although it seems that such a person is embarrassed in the presence of others, keeps in the shadows, under this
behavior often lurks hostility, anger and rage.
Orientation from people: detached type. Orientation from people as a strategy for optimizing interpersonal relationships is found in those individuals who adhere to the defensive attitude: "I don't care." Such
people whom Horney considers to be a separate type are guided by the erroneous belief: "If I step aside, everything will be fine with me" [Nogpeu, 1937, p. 99].
The detached type is characterized by the installation in no way to give oneself
captivate, whether it's a romance, work or play. As a result, they
lose their true interest in people, get used to superficial
pleasures - they just go through life dispassionately. For this strategy
characterized by the desire for solitude, independence and self-sufficiency.
260 Chapter 5. Ego psychology and related trends in personality theory Orientation against people: hostile type. Targeting people is a style of behavior characterized by dominance, hostility, and exploitation. A hostile person acts out of an illusory belief: “I have power, no one will touch me”
The hostile type is of the opinion that all other people are aggressive and that life is a struggle against everyone. Therefore, any situation or relationship he
considers from the position: ≪What will I get from this? ≫, no matter what
it is money, prestige, contacts or ideas. Horney noted that the hostile type is able to act tactfully and friendly, but his behavior in the end
always aimed at gaining control and power over others. Everything is aimed at
increasing one's own prestige, status or satisfaction of personal ambitions.
Thus, this strategy expresses the need to exploit others, to gain public recognition and admiration.
Like all 10 neurotic needs, each of the three interpersonal
strategies are designed to reduce feelings of anxiety caused by social influences in childhood. From Horney's point of view, these fundamental
strategies in interpersonal relationships are ever applied by each of us.
Moreover, according to Horney, all these three strategies are in a state
conflict in both healthy and neurotic personality. However, in healthy
this conflict does not carry such a strong emotional charge as in
patients with neuroses. A healthy person is inherent in great flexibility, he is able to change strategies according to circumstances. And the neurotic is unable to make the right choice between these three strategies when he solves the issues before him or builds relationships with others. He only uses
one of three coping strategies, whether it works in this case or not. Of
this implies that a neurotic, in comparison with a healthy person, behaves both less flexible and less effective in solving life problems.
Psychology of a woman
As mentioned above, Horney disagreed with almost any statement.
Freud's relation to women [Nogpeu, 1926]. She completely rejected his view that women envy the male penis and reproach their mothers for being deprived of this organ. She also thought it was wrong
Freud, who argued that a woman unconsciously seeks to give birth to a son and thus symbolically acquire a penis. Horney protested this humiliating view of women in her reasoning that men are jealous of the uterus, which expresses the unconscious jealousy of men for the ability of women to bear and feed children. Finally Horney came to
the conclusion that psychoanalysis was created by a “male genius, and almost all who developed the ideas of psychoanalysis were men” [Nogpeu, 1926/1967, p. 54]. Must
note that Horney's opposition to Freud's views on women at the time prompted
great controversy. She was disqualified as an instructor in psychoanalysis and was eventually removed from this predominantly male scientific direction. However, as the first major feminist, she did more, Karen Horney: A Sociocultural Theory of Personality 261
than just a criticism of Freud. She put forward her theory of the psychology of women, containing a new look at the differences between men and women in the context of socio-cultural influences.
Horney insisted that women often feel inferior to men because their lives are based on economic, political and psychosocial dependence on men. Historically
it so happened that women were treated as second-class beings, not
recognize the equality of their rights with those of men and educate them so that they
recognized male "superiority". Social systems, with their male dominance, constantly make women feel dependent and untenable. Horney argued that many women strive to become more masculine, but not out of penis envy. She viewed women's “overestimation” of masculinity more as a manifestation of a desire for power and privilege. “The desire to be a man can express the manifestation of the desire to possess all those qualities or privileges that our culture considers masculine — such as strength, courage, independence, success, sexual freedom, and the right to choose a partner” [Nogpeu, 1939, p. 108].
Horney also drew attention to the role contrasts from which
many women in relationships with men, especially highlighting the contrast
between the traditional female role of wife and mother and such a more liberal
role as a choice of a career or the achievement of other goals [Nogpeu, 1926/1967].
She believed that this role contrast explains the neurotic needs that we can see in women in love relationships with men.
Horney's ideas emphasizing culture and gender roles are good
consistent with today's feminist worldview.
Horney welcomed the rapid changes in role behavior and gender relations in modern society. Her numerous articles on the psychology of women are often cited by contemporary
researchers.
Final comments
Horney's theory is almost entirely based on clinical observation. Her explanation of neuroses as a manifestation of disturbed relationships, accompanied by a description of clinical cases, can be considered the most significant contribution to modern theory of personality. However, Horney's interest is almost exclusively
to clinical manifestations of neuroses, to pathology, significantly reduces the scope
application of her theory. To Horney's credit, she has always strived for accuracy and clarity in reasoning about the causes and development of neuroses. One can feel in her thoughts
also an optimistic view of humanity, based on the belief that each person has the ability to positive personal growth.
Unfortunately, in the experimental research literature, there are no direct proofs of her concepts, or refutations. But, despite this, her theoretical and clinical ideas have a huge response. It
she wrote a lot especially for people without professional training in this field, and her books are very popular today. Thus Horney's approach to personality is not only of historical interest.
262 a Chapter 5. Ego psychology and related directions in the theory of personality SUMMARY
Various post-Freudian theorists, revising psychoanalytic theory, emphasized the ego and its functions. Eric Eric Son, one of the most prominent ego psychologists, has focused on the dynamics of ego development throughout the life cycle. He viewed personality as
object of influence of social and historical forces. Unlike Freud, Erikso's ego appears as an autonomous personality structure. His theory focuses on ego qualities that appear during predictable periods of life. Value
social and cultural influences in personality formation are also characteristic of
theories of Erich Fromm and Karen Horney.
Erickson argues that the ego goes through several universal stages in its development. According to his epigenetic concept of human development, each stage of the life cycle occurs at an optimal time. Consistent
the development of life stages is the result of the interaction of an individual's biological maturation with the expanding space of his social connections.
From Erickson's point of view, the human life cycle includes eight psychosocial stages. Each of them is characterized by a certain type of crisis or
a decisive stage in a person's life. The stages are described in terms of leading psychological conflicts: 1) basal trust-basal distrust; 2) autonomy - shame and doubt; 3) initiative - wine; 4) hard work is an incomplete value; 5) ego identity - role mixing; 6) intimacy-isolation;
7) productivity - inertia, stagnation; 8) ego integration - despair. Indie visual identity of the individual depends on the resolution of these conflicts.
Erickson's theory is based on his original provisions on human nature.
His psychosocial theory found expression:
Strong adherence to the principles of holism, environmentalism (dominated by social factors) and mutability;
w moderate adherence to the principles of determinism, rationality, objectivity, proactivity, heterostasis, and cognition.
Studies assessing the empirical validity of Erickson's theory have been considered in terms of concepts and phenomena such as forms of ego identity, the achievement of identity, and the ability to intimacy. It was noted that the theory
Erickson has spurred very little research.
The application of Erickson's theory has been discussed in connection with the problem of understanding
behavior of adolescents in American society. Various aspects of adolescent behavior - the problem of career choice, membership in a peer group, alcohol and drug use - were explained as a partial reflection of the crisis
identity.
Erich Fromm continued the post-Freudian trend in personology, focusing on the influence of social and cultural factors on personality.
He argued that the chasm between freedom and security had reached such
limit that today loneliness, a sense of their own insignificance and alienation have become the defining signs of the life of a modern person. A certain part of people are driven by the desire to escape from freedom, which is carried out by Eric Erickson, Erich Fromm, and Karen Horney w 263
thanks to spontaneous activity.
Fromm described five existential needs that are unique to humans. These needs are based on conflicting aspirations for freedom and security: the need to establish connections, the need
to overcome, need for roots, need for identity and need
in a belief system and devotion.
Fromm believed that basic character orientations are a consequence of
a way of satisfying existential needs provided by social, economic and political conditions. Unproductive types
character - receptive, exploiting, accumulating and market.
The productive character, according to Fromm's theory, is the goal of human development; it is based on reason, love and work.
Karen Horney rejected Freud's postulate that physical anatomy defines personality differences between men and women. She argued that the social relationship between the child and the parents is a decisive factor in personality development. According to Horney, the basic needs in childhood are satisfaction and safety. If parental behavior is not conducive to
meeting the child's need for safety, this leads to a basal
hostility, which, in turn, leads to basal anxiety. Basal anxiety ha - the feeling of helplessness in a hostile world - is the basis of neurosis.
Horney described 10 neurotic needs that people use with
the goal of coping with the lack of security and helplessness generated by
basal anxiety. In contrast to healthy people, neurotics, reacting to different situations, rely on only one need. Subsequently Horney
combined neurotic needs into three main strategies of interpersonal behavior: orientation "from people", "against people" and "toward people". In a neurotic personality, one of them usually predominates.
Horney disagreed with Freud on a woman's penis envy;
she suggested instead the version that men are jealous of
women because of the ability of the latter to bear and feed children. She also
believed that women may feel inferior to
their economic, political and psychological dependence on men.
Horney paid particular attention to sociocultural influences, especially male
domination and discrimination of women, in explaining the development of the personality of women.
ISSUES FOR DISCUSSION
1. How does Erickson's theory modify and / or extend Freud's psychoanalytic approach to personality?
2. Do you agree with Erickson that the main crisis in adolescence
is ego-identity-role-mixing? Do you suppose you yourself are in some
degree experienced this crisis? If so, how do you think he could affect
other areas of your life (for example, career choices, relationships with parents, love relationships)?
264 Chapter 5. Ego psychology and related directions in personality theory 3. Erickson argues that the achievement of ego identity is a struggle for
Karen Horney is one of the few outstanding female psychoanalysts who has brought fresh insights into classical Freudian teachings. Horney's approach to the study of personality influenced the development of a new direction - neo-Freudianism, the founder of which is her close friend and colleague Erich Fromm. One of the main achievements of Karen Horney was the introduction into psychology of the concept of "I-image", which is widely used in psychotherapeutic practice today.
The basic principles of K. Horney's theory of personality
K. Horney, at one time, came to the conclusion that society has a dominant influence on the development and formation of the individual. She argued that the development of an individual is not limited only to the influence of innate instinctive aspirations and a person himself can change and control the process of his formation. According to Horney's theory, the dominant force in the structure of personality is the feeling of unconscious anxiety, which the author called "root anxiety." In describing this feeling, Horney talked about the experiences of anxiety and loneliness that every baby experiences when entering a huge hostile world. Thus, it is about the confrontation between the outside world and man. Horney said that both the indifferent and cold attitude of the parents towards the child and their excessive guardianship contribute to an increase in the level of fundamental anxiety.
The environment is equally influential, be it aggressive and suppressive, or, conversely, praising and friendly. To understand how two such conflicting factors as hostility and admiration can have an equally negative impact on human development, you need to separate physiological and psychological anxiety. Horney referred to physiological anxiety as the state of anxiety of the child associated with the satisfaction of his basic physiological needs. In the first weeks of life, the baby experiences constant anxiety. Will he be fed when he gets hungry? Will wet diapers change? Will they take him on the pens when he is scared? If all these needs are met on time, then gradually the level of physiological anxiety decreases. If not, this anxiety remains with the person for life and is an “excellent” background for the development of neurotic states. Thus, in order to get rid of physiological anxiety, it is enough to provide the baby with careful care and surround him with attention and care. Psychological anxiety is much more difficult to remove. This state is closely related to the concept of self-image, which was once introduced by Karen Horney.
Self-image as a key concept in K. Horney's theory of personality
To reduce the constant, you need to work on the formation of an adequate self-image. Horney said that the I-image consists of three components: I-ideal, I-real and I-in the eyes of others. In a normally developing personality, resistant to neuroses, all three parts coincide and create one integral self. But such "unity" is not found in everyone, and most often a person has a conflict between the individual components of his image. For example, if the personality does not match the images of the ideal I and the real I, then there is a feeling of constant dissatisfaction with oneself, uncertainty, anxiety. Such tension can cause the development of neurosis. The mismatch between the real I and the I in the eyes of others leads to the same result. And it doesn't matter if other people think worse or better about a person than he does about himself. That is why both neglect and admiration, if they do not coincide with the real opinion of the person himself, increase his level of anxiety.
According to Horney, in order to avoid feelings of anxiety, a person uses psychological defense mechanisms. It is they that allow two conflicting images of I-real and I-in the eyes of other people to be brought to one common whole. Horney identified three main mechanisms. Normally, each of them helps to reduce anxiety, but if one begins to dominate, then this leads to the formation of a certain neurotic complex.
Depending on the chosen protection mechanism, the author identified three types of behavior: compliant, aggressive, eliminated. Compliant behavior is aimed at "blind" agreement with people, and is about seeking public approval. Needs arise for acceptance, encouragement and a partner to whom you can shift responsibility for your life. All these needs are unrealistic and cannot be satisfied, so a person, receiving approval, demands more and more. With an aggressive mechanism, a person seeks to force others to impose his self-ideal idea. This is expressed in suppression of the opinions of others, domination, exploitation of other people. The eliminated type of behavior consists in avoiding society and striving for loneliness, solitude. But it does not help to reduce anxiety, because having isolated oneself from other people, the person continues to experience constant stress from rejection by society.
Sociocultural Personality Theory (Karen Horney)
The author of the sociocultural theory of personality is Karen Horney, a German-American psychoanalyst, a follower of Freud's ideas. Three main considerations served as the impetus for the formation of a sociocultural approach:
1. Horney believed that physical anatomy does not play a decisive role in the psychological differences between women and men. She argued that Freud's claim of "penis envy" was illogical.
2. Horney was convinced that sociocultural conditions have a profound impact on the development and functioning of the individual.
3. There are huge differences in personality dynamics that have resulted from cultural influences.
Based on these three premises, Horney concludes that personality pathology is based on unique styles of interpersonal relationships.
Personal development
Horney agreed with Freud that childhood experiences play an important role in the formation of a mature personality. However, she rejected Freud's opinion about the existence of universal psychosexual stages. Horney believed that the decisive factor in the development of personality is the child's social relationship with the parents.
According to Horney, in childhood a person has two needs: the need for satisfaction and the need for security. Satisfaction includes all the basic life-supporting functions of a child: eating, sleeping, etc. Horney believed that these needs do not play a major role in the formation of a mature personality.
The main thing in the development of a child's personality is the need for safety. For a little person, the main thing is to be loved, desired and protected from the dangers of the outside world. The child is completely dependent on his parents to meet these needs. If parents show true warmth and love for their child, then his need for safety will be satisfied. If a child is frustrated with this need for a different reason, then the main result will be the formation of a pathological personality - the child has an attitude basal hostility ... The child seems to be psychologically torn - he depends on his parents and at the same time feels resentment and hostility towards them.
Such a conflict leads to the triggering of such a protective mechanism as repression. As a result, the behavior of a child who does not feel safe in the family is guided by feelings of helplessness, fear, love and guilt. These motives play the role of psychological protection, the purpose of which is survival through the suppression of hostile feelings towards parents.
Suppression of feelings of resentment and hostility, initially directed at parents, is manifested in all relationships of the child with others, both now and in the future. Thus, the child is observed basal anxiety , i.e. a feeling of loneliness and safety in the face of a dangerous world around. Horney believed that it is the basal anxiety that is the main cause of the formation of neuroses.
Neurotic needs
To cope with basal anxiety, a person can use special defense mechanisms, and unconsciously. These mechanisms are called neurotic needs.
1. In love and approval - an insatiable desire to be loved and the object of admiration from others, increased sensitivity and susceptibility to any criticism.
2. In a leading partner... Excessive dependence on the environment and the fear of rejection or being alone. Reappraisal of love - the belief that love can solve everything.
3. In clear limits... A person prefers a lifestyle when restrictions and prohibitions are of prime importance.
4. In power... Dominance and control over others, as an end in itself, a contempt for weakness.
5. Exploiting others... A person is afraid that “someone” is using him, therefore he is afraid to look “stupid” in the eyes of others. At the same time, she does not want to do something to outwit them.
6. In public recognition... A person wants to be the object of admiration from others, forms his opinion about himself depending on his social status.
7. In admiration for myself... The desire to create an embellished image of oneself, devoid of flaws and limitations, the need for complements and flattery from others.
8. In ambition... Strong desire to be the best, no matter the consequences. Very strong fear of failure.
9. In self-sufficiency and independence... A person avoids any relationship that involves taking on any obligations, distances himself from everyone and everything.
10. In flawlessness and irrefutability... A person tries to maintain the impression of perfection and virtue, tries to be infallible and flawless in all respects.
Horney believed that these needs exist in all people. They help us deal with the feelings of rejection and helplessness inevitable in life. A healthy person can easily change one form of behavior for another, depending on the circumstances. The neurotic, on the other hand, relies on only one of all possible needs.
Horney's theory of personality is a system of ideas that developed in a discussion with many of Freud's positions. Pan-sexualism and the fatal role of childhood in the formation of character and neuroses were rejected, an understanding of the role of the cultural environment in the emergence of neuroses was achieved. In Horney's theory, the basis is a feeling of basal anxiety, due to the individual's opposition to natural and social forces. Society, on the one hand, contributes to the formation of a certain structure of needs in an individual, and, on the other hand, acts as an obstacle to their realization. This leads to the emergence of a sense of anxiety and behavior focused on achieving security, and ultimately to the formation of a certain type of personality (aggressive, compliant and alienated from society).
It departs significantly from orthodox psychoanalysis in several respects: rejecting the libido construct, rejecting the assumption that the behavior of all people is conditioned by innate forbidden instincts, such as incest and destructiveness, and emphasizing more social. Than biologist. determinants of personality.
Causes of neurosis according to Horney. Each person has the ability and desire to creatively develop their potential and take their rightful place among their own kind. Psychopathology occurs only if this innate desire for positive growth and self-realization is blocked by external social services. influences.
While a healthy child develops a sense of belonging to a safe and nourishing family, a child raised by neurotic parents experiences deep doubts, intense fears, and perceives the world around him as hostile and frightening. The reduction of this intense basic anxiety now becomes the main goal of the child, dominating his innate healthy desires and needs. Because of this, he rejects warm and spontaneous relationships with other people and manipulates them for his own benefit. Thus, a healthy search for self-realization is replaced by a general desire for security and safety - a sign of neurosis.
Move towards, against and away from people. The neurotic desire for security is realized by exaggerating one of the three main characteristics of basic anxiety: helplessness, aggressiveness, and detachment.
With neurotic helplessness, a person experiences an excessively strong desire to be under someone's protection and, exaggerated, hypocritically yields to the desires of other people (movement towards people).
With neurotic aggressiveness, a person is sure that life is a Darwinian jungle in which only the fittest survive (movement against people). For people with neurotic aggressiveness, most of those around them appear to be hostile and hypocritical; they believe that true feelings are unattainable or even non-existent.
With neurotic detachment, a person avoids close or even casual contact with others (moving away from people).
While a healthy person is free to move towards, against, or away from people as appropriate, the three neurotic decisions are involuntary and rigid. They are, however, not mutually exclusive. In each case, the two orientations, the meaning of which is deliberately understated, remain active at the unconscious level and conflict with the dominant orientation.
