Sources of obtaining geographic information. Khanty-Mansiysk Autonomous Okrug. What will we do with the received material

Economic and social geography of the world is a socio-geographical science, the subject of which is the general patterns of development and distribution of the population and economy on the globe, as well as in certain regions and countries. The most important goals of her research are the search for rational settlement and location of the economy and the optimization of relations between the development of society and nature.

Geographic research methods are ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe mutual arrangement of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth is developing historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore knowledge of history is necessary to understand modern geography: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource availability, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Method of geographical zoning. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods of research in geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything can be compared: more or less, profitable or disadvantageous, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observation. Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographic information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. Geographic modeling is an important method of geography research. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the objects and phenomena under study, but also predict the consequences to which humanity may come in the course of its development. Geographic forecasting helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, use resources rationally, and solve global problems.

To study the nature of continents and oceans, geographers use general geographic and sectoral methods research.

Some of the main research methods in geography are observation and dimension, thanks to which they collect primary geographic information about the features of continents and oceans. Direct observations and necessary measurements are carried out during expeditions, staying directly at the object under study, for example, at a scientific station in Antarctica. They are often carried out from scientific research ships or even from regular ships, from the orbits of space stations and geophysical rockets, from artificial earth satellites and laboratory aircraft (Fig. 4).

Space observations have enriched geography with new knowledge. During observations of the ocean near Antarctica with the help of a satellite, ocean eddies with a diameter of 30 to 200 km were first noticed and determined that they are similar to cyclones and anticyclones of the atmosphere. With the help of satellites, the movements of the lithospheric plates were recorded, reaching approximately 10 cm per year. Thanks to the survey of the ocean floor by spacecraft, they discovered the differences in the relief of the ocean floor in comparison with the land surface and created the corresponding maps.

Based on the obtained primary geographic information, models or models (Fig. 5) are created for relief forms, cyclones and anti-cyclones, rivers with a dam and a reservoir, natural complexes, etc., and various maps are developed.

In geography, there are also methods for obtaining secondary geographic information. This is due to the fact that many geographic objects are inaccessible for direct observation or are very large. Then the research scientists resort to using previously obtained and ordered data.

Scientists accumulate secondary geographic information gradually. Sources of information for them are maps, especially thematic ones, analyzing which you can compare phenomena, create an image specific territory (Fig. 5). Orderly geographic information is given and tables, combining various characteristics of the territory. An example of such a table is the geochronological scale. The source of secondary geographic information is graphs, diagrams, profiles.(Remember the form of temperature graphs, wind rose, climate diagrams, relief profiles.)

An important method of obtaining secondary information in geography also remains descriptions, especially when it comes to the characteristics of the nature of individual continents, countries, mysterious seas and islands. Nowadays, the function of description is also performed by various video media - cinema and television.

A new source of secondary geographic information is geographic information system (GIS), designed for computer reading, analysis and information provision. Material from the site

GIS is fast. In GIS, there is a certain set of programs that help to quickly (in 3-5 minutes) create any geographic map. At the same time, the necessary data is entered, and their analysis is carried out automatically. And when working with maps of the atlas, when it is necessary to discover a certain relationship, for example, between the relief and the structure of the earth's crust, the time is used five times more, because maps of different scales are needed, located on different pages.

Geographic maps can be classified according to various criteria.

Only one or several events are shown in detail on thematic maps. Examples of thematic maps: vegetation map, climate map, geological map, soil map, political map, etc.

On general geographical maps, both natural objects and phenomena (relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation) and socio-economic (settlements, roads, industrial enterprises). The names are signed on them: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits, lakes, rivers; continents, islands, capes; plains, mountains, ridges; settlements, etc. The names of settlements are displayed to the right of the symbol, parallel to the southern frame or along the nearest parallel. The names of rivers are placed in the middle of the channel or along its axis, and the names of seas, islands and states are placed within the contours, located in the direction of greater length.

Figure: Classification of geographical maps

Maps also distinguish by the coverage of the territory. The classification of maps by the size of the territory depicted on them includes the following groups: 1) maps of the starry sky; 2) maps of planets and the Earth; 3) maps of hemispheres; 4) maps of continents and oceans; 5) maps of seas, bays, straits; 6) country maps; 7) maps of large natural regions; 8) maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative districts; 9) city maps; 10) maps of urban areas.

There is a classification of cards by appointment, taking into account the diversity of spheres of human activity. For example, scientific reference maps are designed to carry out scientific research and obtain reference information, tourist maps - to obtain information about interesting objects of the area, cafes, hotels, technical maps - to solve engineering problems. Educational maps are the main visual aid in the study of geography, as well as economics, history and other academic disciplines.

Divide the cards into groups and in scale. Small-scale maps with a scale smaller than 1: 1,000,000 are distinguished, intended for the study of large territories, medium-scale maps with a scale of 1: 200,000 to 1: 1,000,000, and large-scale maps with a scale of 1: 200,000 and larger.

Large scale maps are topographic maps.

Let us remind you that in its content cards can be:

• general geographic;
• thematic.

Vegetation maps, for example, depict the distribution and composition of vegetation in different areas. There are also maps of minerals, forest maps, relief maps, synoptic maps, industry maps showing large cities - industrial centers and their specialization. All these maps characterize geographic objects and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry. That is why they are called thematic. For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of \u200b\u200bthe location of countries, their borders.

General geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport networks, etc. For example, a physical map of Russia.

By area coverage distinguish between maps of the world, individual continents, countries and their parts (regions).

A political map of the World

A political map of the World - one of the most important cartographic sources in the course of the geography of the world, since this hag shows different countries, their capitals, routes of communication and other useful information.

Let's look at the political map. In addition to the borders of states, on the political map you can see the largest cities and capitals of countries, routes of communication and seaports, the largest hydrographic objects (seas, rivers, lakes, bays, straits). Some other geographic features, such as relief, may also be shown.

On the political hag of the world, you will find over 230 countries and territories.

The borders of the state have been formed for a long time. They can change for various reasons: historical, political, economic, cultural, natural.

In order to know the political map of the world or individual continents and their parts, it is necessary to constantly refer to it, train in determining the geographical position of certain countries or regions, monitor the changes taking place in the world.

The most difficult is the political map of Western Europe. Let's together with you determine the geographical position of the countries of this region (Table 1).

Time zone map - an interesting, and most importantly, useful map (Fig. I).

For the convenience of timing, the entire surface of the Earth was divided into 24 time zones. The time of each time zone differs from the following by one hour. The zones are numbered from 0 to 23 from west to east from Greenwich meridian. In all points located within the same belt, the same is considered standard time. Moscow, for example, is in the second time zone.

However, in Moscow we live not according to the waist, but according to standard time (from Latin decretum - decree, decree). In addition, you know that in Russia the clock hands move forward (summer time) or backward (winter time) one hour with the aim of the most rational use the bright part of the day and energy savings. Therefore, Moscow, being in the 2nd time zone, practically lives according to the time of the 3rd time zone. In other words, when it is 13 o'clock in Moscow (Moscow time), then in Paris - 11 o'clock (Central European time), in London - 10 o'clock (Greenwich time).

Figure: 1. Map of time zones of the world

Look at the hags of time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not drawn exactly along the meridians. For convenience, the boundaries of states, regions, states and other administrative-territorial entities within the same country are taken into account. In Russia, for example, the 11th and 12th time zones are combined into one.

And air transport, telephone and telegraph communications on the territory of the country work, as a rule, at a single time. In Russia, for example, Moscow time.

If you look closely at the time zone map, you will notice what makes the 180th meridian remarkable. A conditional date line. Its zigzag in the Chukchi Peninsula is not accidental. The fact is that on both sides of this line the hours and minutes coincide, and the calendar dates differ by one day. If the date line crossed Chukotka, its residents would have to maintain their own calendar, one day ahead of the all-Russian one.

If you ever decide to take a trip around the world and travel east from Cape Dezhnev, crossing the date line, do not forget to count the same day twice. Conversely, moving from east to west - skip one day.

Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information

Is a science that studies the totality of mass phenomena in order to take into account and identify the patterns of their development using quantitative (statistical) indicators. The population is just such a mass phenomenon. Statistical indicators include absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

Absolute values are informative and show the extent of geographic phenomena. For example, Russia has the most large territory in the world - more than 17 million km 2, which is almost twice the territory of countries such as China, USAor Canada. However, in terms of population, Russia is inferior to many countries. In 2007, the population was 142 million. - eighth place in the world.

Table 2. Population of the largest countries in the world (million people)

Relative magnitude expresses the result of comparison (comparison) of statistical indicators with each other. They allow you to detect certain changes in geographical phenomena, their tendency.

Odds - indicators that reflect characteristics individual phenomena, such as the coefficient of specialization or natural population growth.

In order to learn how to work with statistical materials, one must first of all understand how they are organized and constructed (ordered).

Statistical table is a system of vertical and horizontal graphs (columns and rows), provided with headers and filled in a certain order with digital data. It contains the statistical data necessary to characterize the studied geographic phenomenon and its component parts... The headings of the horizontal rows of a statistical table correspond to the statistical “subject”, and the top headings of its vertical columns correspond to the statistical “predicate”.

Let's look, for example, at the statistical table. 3 "Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the census of 1926-2002."

Table 3. Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the census data of 1926-2002,%

The statistical subject lists those parts and groups of the phenomenon under study that are quantitatively characterized in the predicate. In this case, these are the economic regions of Russia. The predicate of the table shows the values \u200b\u200bof the phenomenon under study - the share of the population living in the economic regions of the Russian Federation for a number of years.

Thus, any statistical table includes three required elements:

• general table heading;
• statistical subject;
• statistical predicate.

Statistical materials can be presented not only in statistical tables, but also in a visual form: in diagrams, graphs, maps, schematic maps.

Statistical maps - these are, first of all, cartograms and cartodiagrams. Let's join with you, using the table. 4, we compose on outline map cartogram showing the population density of the economic regions of Russia:

• write down the name of the cartogram ("Population density of the economic regions of Russia");
• write down the name of the source, on the basis of which we will build a cartogram (statistical table "Population density of economic regions of Russia");
• we will write out the relative statistical indicators that we will depict, having previously rounded their values \u200b\u200bto whole numbers;
• let's divide the indicators into groups according to the principle of equal intervals. The simplest way to break down is to divide the difference between the largest (63) and the smallest value (1) of the indicator by 5. In our case (63 - 1 \u003d 62 “60: 5 \u003d 12), the interval will be 12, and the groups of indicators will be as follows: 1 - 12; 12-24; 24-36; 36-48; 48-60 and more than 60 people / km 2;
• we will compose the legend of the cartogram in a notebook, where darker tones of color (or thicker shading) depict a greater intensity of the phenomenon; light shades (or rare shading) - less. For a color image, it is better to take shades of one paint: from lighter to darker;
• show on the contour map the boundaries of the economic regions of Russia;
• transfer the legend of the cartogram to the contour map in the "Legend";
• let's execute the cartogram.

Building graphs and diagrams based on statistics has a mathematical foundation that you are well aware of.

Based on their graphs, we can conclude that up to the 90s. XX century in the resettlement of the population of Russia, the historical trend of the development of new lands and Russian outskirts persisted.

Since the 1990s. there is a reverse trend of population decline in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, primarily the Far East and North.

Diagrams show the volume and structure of geographic phenomena. They can be circular, point, linear, areal, volumetric, etc. (Fig. 2). Recall that when constructing pie charts the initial radius is considered to be directed upward on the sheet of paper, that is, "north". It is from it, clockwise, that the indicators (based on the calculation of I% \u003d 3.6 degrees), characterizing the geographical phenomenon, for example, the resettlement of the Earth's population, depending on the proximity of the seas, are deposited.

Figure: 2. Resettlement of the Earth's population, depending on the proximity of the coast of the seas and oceans

The scale of the diagram depends on: a) the size of the sheet; b) the values \u200b\u200bof the initial indicators; c) the difference between the highest and lowest values \u200b\u200bof indicators; d) the number of diagram symbols.

To determine the scale bar chart, for example, you must first establish what the largest and smallest posts can be. The base of the diagram is determined by the formula X \u003d A: M, where X is the base of the diagram; A is the statistical indicator we use; M is the scale base, which shows how many units of this indicator are per 1 sq. mm of chart area. It is composed like this. First, the center line is drawn - the base of the diagram, and then the perpendiculars are restored taking into account the scale.

Drawing up a cartodiagram on a contour map is reduced to building diagrams within the boundaries of a certain territory, for example, within the boundaries of large regions of Russia, economic regions, subjects of the Russian Federation.

Age and sex pyramid allows you to visually analyze the sex ratio by age groups of the population. It is constructed as follows. The age is plotted along the vertical axis at regular intervals (in the form of age intervals; for example, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, etc.), and along the horizontal axis - to the left - the number (or proportion) of men, and to the right - women (on the same scale). For each age group, they build their own line diagram and, as it were, "string" them one after another from bottom to top - from the base of the pyramid to its top (Fig. 3). By the shape of such a pyramid, it is possible to determine the peculiarities of the age structure of the population, to reveal the features of the sex ratio in different age groups. The quantitative data on the ratio of sexes and age groups of the population read from the age-sex pyramids can be used for further calculations of generalizing demographic indicators (for example, the coefficients of the demographic load of the population), their analysis and comparison.

Figure: 3. Age and sex pyramids

The question arises as to how to update statistical materials, because they become outdated pretty soon. For this, there are statistical collections, reference books, periodicals, Internet resources.

Geographic information systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting geographic information

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Is a computer database that stores geo-information in the form of maps of various contents, digital and textual information on objects plotted on these maps. Information can be presented on the monitor screen and in the form of printouts of any scale, tables, graphs, diagrams for any of the information blocks.

In terms of spatial coverage, there are global, nationwide, regional, local and urban GIS. According to their purpose, they are subdivided into resource-cadastral, land, environmental, geological, marine, educational, etc.

Thus, geographic information systems (GIS) are special systems capable of collecting, organizing, storing, processing, evaluating, displaying and disseminating data at a new technical level and obtaining new geographic information on this basis. It is very effective, for example, the use of educational GIS when comparing thematic maps of different content on the same territory, be it a country or a region; when establishing various geographic connections.

Let's pay your special attention to opportunities and resources of the Internet, which can be used by you in the course of studying the course. They include:

• educational resources WWW (World Wide Web);
• E-mail (email);
• teleconferences.

The educational resources of the World Wide Web can be helpful:

• to search for additional and updated (including statistical) information for lessons in the preparation process;
• to search for information in the process of preparing various kinds of creative works (reports, abstracts, business games, training conferences, etc.).

Email can be used:

• for the exchange of educational creative work with their peers from other schools, regions of our country;
• for mutual exchange of information in the process of solving problems of distance learning and telecommunication projects.

Teleconferencing can be helpful:

• with participation in various educational and cognitive telecommunication projects.

A geographic map is a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface, showing the location, state and connections of various natural and social phenomena, their changes in time, development and movement in accordance with the purpose of this map.

It is natural to regard geographic maps as visual figurative-symbolic models. They are characterized by the main features of models in general: abstraction from the whole for the study of a part - a specific territory, specific phenomena and processes; simplification, consisting in the refusal to take into account the many characteristics and relationships and in preserving some of the most essential; generalization meaning emphasis common features and properties, etc. These abstractions contribute to a deeper understanding of the phenomena depicted on the cards.

The first feature of geographical maps is the construction with the help of cartographic projections, which make it possible to obtain correct data on the position, planned dimensions and shape of the terrestrial objects depicted on the maps.

The second feature of geographic maps - the use of cartographic signs as a special map language - makes it possible to:

a) depict the earth's surface with a desired decrease (i.e., at a desired scale) in order to cover with a single glance the necessary part or even the entire earth's surface, while reproducing on the map those objects that, due to the decrease, are not expressed on the scale of the map, but in their own way the value should be shown;

b) show the relief of the earth's surface on the map (for example, using contours), that is, transfer the unevenness of the terrain in a flat image;

c) not be limited to displaying the surface of objects on a geographic map, but indicate their internal properties (for example, on a sea map, you can show the physicochemical properties of water, currents, relief and soils of the seabed, etc.);

d) show the spread of phenomena that are not directly perceived by our senses (for example, magnetic declination, anomalies of gravity, etc.), and make clear connections and relationships that are inaccessible to direct perception (for example, between sources of raw materials and enterprises for its processing);

e) exclude less significant aspects, particulars and details inherent in single objects, and highlight their general and essential features (for example, characterize settlements in terms of population and administrative significance, refusing to transfer their layout), that is, to resort to abstraction.

The third feature of geographical maps is especially important - the selection and generalization of the phenomena depicted, that is, cartographic generalization.

Geographic maps have been and remain the main source of geographic information. Maps allow a one-time view of space in any range - from a small area of \u200b\u200bterrain to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and relative position of objects, allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the existing connections between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of the cards for practice.

Geographic maps, fixing the position, state and spatial relationships of specific objects (phenomena), allow not only to economically and expressively present knowledge about the location of phenomena, but also to find the patterns of this location. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main research tool.

Maps serve as a reliable guide on land and in the ocean, when moving troops and on hiking trips, for flying in an airship and for a walking route.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and an obligatory tool for command and control of troops and the organization of their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as a basis for surveying, designing and transferring to nature an engineering project. Now the most profitable tracks railways, highways and pipelines are not sought in the field, but are outlined on topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture for land management, land reclamation, measures to improve soil fertility, to combat erosion and, in general, to record and the most correct, efficient use of all land funds.

The cards make up an indispensable tool for school and extracurricular learning. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination, the rise of a common culture. Without exaggeration, it is fashionable to say that cards are used to one degree or another in all spheres of human activity.

Maps have acquired great importance as a means of scientific research, especially geographical. Each geographical study, in one way or another, proceeds from existing maps, provides materials for their implementation and improvement. The scope of using maps as a means of scientific research is rapidly expanding with the general increase in the pace of scientific progress. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of computer science and in the development of modeling theory.

The study of general problems of collecting, storing and transferring knowledge by computer science makes it possible to more fully appreciate the advantages of geographical maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information. As noted, these advantages lie in the possibility of a one-time, holistic perception of cartographic images, in the visibility of territorial differences and in the convenience of analyzing spatial combinations, relationships and patterns.

Modeling method in geography, geoinformation and distance methods are based on the cartographic method. The energetic introduction of modeling methods into modern science has opened, when applied to cartography, the real power of maps as generalized and simplified spatial images of the real world, that is, its models reflecting those aspects, properties and processes of reality that are important for the purposes of specific research. Maps allow you to gain new knowledge, study development processes and predict many phenomena. The development of methods for using maps as a research tool is one of the main tasks of modern cartography.

Despite the introduction of new methods into geography, the cartographic method is one of the main in research. And although now maps are often stored in computer memory and are part of geographic information systems that receive information from satellites and from numerous meteorological stations, including databanks containing reports on the results of the work of many research teams, the map remains the most perfect way of transmitting spatial information.

Geographic research methods are ways to obtain geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method... The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of the Russian - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of \u200b\u200bthe mutual arrangement of objects, their sizes, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method... Everything on Earth is developing historically. Nothing arises out of nowhere, therefore knowledge of history is necessary to understand modern geography: the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method... It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of \u200b\u200bthe territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical... If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, mortality and population, balance, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographic regionalization method... The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods of research in geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical... Everything is subject to comparison:
more or less, profitable or disadvantageous, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Field research and observation method... Geography cannot be studied only while sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographic information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Remote observation method... Modern aerial and space photography are great assistants in the study of geography, in the creation and development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method... Geographic modeling is an important method of geography research. The simplest geographic model is.

10) Geographic forecast... Modern geographical science should not only describe the objects and phenomena under study, but also predict the consequences to which mankind can come in the course of its development. Geographic forecasting helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, to reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, to use resources rationally, and to solve.