11 obstetric week of pregnancy is the beginning of the third month. At this time...
Egyptian civilization has its roots in the IXthousand BC. BC. At that time, more abundant rainfall than today in the Nile Valley contributed to the formation of fertile soils and the spread of savannahs on both sides of the river. Nomadic tribes of hunters gradually concentrated in the floodplain, as more distant lands were burned out by the sun, turning into deserts. The settlement of the Nile Valley was mainly due to the Neolithic farmers who descended from the foothills. The most ancient archaeological cultures of Egypt are characterized by: grain farming (barley, spelled wheat), flint tools, coarse ceramics, the first products from imported Sinai copper. IV millennium BC was a period of active development of ancient Egypt (irrigation facilities; adobe buildings; copper metallurgy; property inequality; mastering the practice of building from raw bricks). Thus, a material foundation was laid, corresponding to the level of primary proto-states.
The first proto-states in Egypt arose in the form of associations around temples - nomes. As can be assumed, the priest-rulers of the nomes, as their power strengthened, entered into fierce rivalry with each other, resulting in a gradual concentration of power in the hands of the most successful of them. KVthous. BC. two clearly demarcated political associations arose - Lower and Upper Egypt, the struggle between which at the turn of the 4th-3rd millennium BC. led to the victory of the ruler of Upper Egypt, who crowned himself with both crowns. The first center of the united state was Memphis.
Such an early unification of the entire country under the leadership of a single king, whose equal in terms of power at that time was not yet known to mankind, played a role in accelerating the process of institutionalization of power, the formation of an effective centralized administration, based on a powerful and extensive hierarchical bureaucratic apparatus. One of the main functions of the royal power was the organization of the irrigation system in the Nile Valley and maintaining it in order. As a result, agricultural activities developed, which included the art of cultivating grapes, cattle breeding, weaving, and also samples were made of making the first paper - papyrus, and as a result, the spread of writing began. Already in the early period of its history, Egypt finally entered the copper age, the Egyptians began to gradually move beyond the borders of their country: to Nubia, Libya, to the Sinai Peninsula. Surrounded by a halo of greatness and legends pharaohs of this period were revered as some deities who descended from heaven to earth. At this time, the construction of giant monuments in their honor begins - pyramids. Thus, Ancient Egypt turned into a huge, although politically not yet very stable state.
3. Ancient Kingdom (second half of the 3rd millennium BC).
This was the first long period of stable and effective central authority in Egypt. Egyptian civilization entered the period of its heyday: trade, art, writing developed on the basis of hieroglyphic writing, the ancient Egyptian state finally took shape and strengthened as a single and extremely rigid economic organism, within which the horticultural and cattle-breeding north was successfully combined with the agricultural south, as well as everywhere the water regime set by the regular floods of the Nile was maintained. The state acquired the features of a centralized despotism, based on an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, whose basis was the vast resources of land, labor and food. The first person after the pharaoh was the supreme dignitary, he is also the chief judge, who performed many different functions. The pharaohs were no longer just deified kings - they were considered equal to the gods. There was a strict ritual of worshiping them, the practice of their burials was developed.
This period is characterized by the rapid growth of stone construction, the apogee of which was the construction of huge pyramids with funeral temples and cities of noble tombs. The construction of the pyramids took a lot of effort and money, but contributed to the acceleration of the pace of economic development, the accumulation of experience and skills of workers. In the construction of the pyramids, along with skilled craftsmen, working detachments from among the Egyptians who were serving their labor service were used.
The pharaohs conducted a rather active foreign policy, making campaigns against their neighbors from time to time. Military booty and trading expeditions provided Egypt with a considerable influx of gold, silver, incense resins, ivory, semi-precious stones, building timber, etc.
Over time, the supreme power began to lose its halo of greatness, as the cult of the sun greatly increased, eclipsing the power of the pharaoh. The local aristocracy came to the fore, gaining independence, and the kingdom broke up into a number of principalities at war with each other. Civil strife and unrest weakened the power of Egypt, the irrigation system fell into disrepair, the population suffered from severe hunger. During the unrest, two unifying centers claimed the Egyptian throne: Heracleopolis in the north and Thebes on South. Thebes emerged victorious from this fight.
3 thousand years BC uh
For 3-2 thousand years BC. e. in some cities, advanced civilizations have sewers. The very first canal for waste drainage was built in ancient Egypt in 2500 BC. e.
They began to use sundials. Water clocks are also known, which determine the time depending on the amount of water that has flowed out through a hole in the vessel.
At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC. e. the flowering of technology in the period of early civilization is noted. Manufacturing technique in various types craft reaches perfection. New forms and types of household items and tools are being created. Nowadays, we use many of them, their shape has become traditional, for example, a table, a chair, an armchair, dishes, bricks, sekers, caskets, a chisel, a knife, a sieve, a razor, a drill, a file, bars, scales, a saw, needles, plywood, rope, tin pipes, etc. Most of these objects were known before, but the forms of these objects were not technically perfect.
2500 BC e.
Mesopotamian builders start building sewers and arched pipes for drainage Wastewater from palaces.
Horses and mules, among other animals, are beginning to be used as draft power. Horses are harnessed to the same teams as cattle - to the yoke. The harness was worn around the neck of the horse, which allowed the use of only a small part of the horsepower.
In China in 2400 BC. e. in Henan province was built tombs of an aristocrat. During excavations, archaeologists found 26 bells in it, each of which is capable of producing two different notes. When hammers were struck on the edges and middle part of the bells, they made gentle sounds.
2300 BC e. In Babylon, geographical maps are known that were carved on clay tablets.
2000 BC e.
China built a "mechanical man" - a skilled dancer. There are memories of this in the ancient treatise Le-tzu.
In the countries of the Ancient East, the need for calculation in exchange in trade and in the construction business leads to the emergence of mathematics. In Egypt, mathematical problems were written on papyrus, in Babylon - on clay tablets. They wrote on wet clay tablets, or rather, drew with a triangular pointed stick, pressing into the clay. After that, the tiles were fired for strength and durability. These clay tablets with cuneiform writing have come down to our time. They wrote on papyrus with ink - soot diluted in water, to which gum arabic glue was added. A reed pen, pointed and flared at the end to hold a drop of ink, served as a writing instrument. On parchment, and then on paper, they already wrote with the help of bird feathers (goose or crow) with ink from the juice of ink nuts, iron vitriol and gum arabic. This ink was absorbed into the parchment and was no longer washed off. They could only be scraped off. They also wrote on paper with goose quills, which had to be cut obliquely, sharpened and split with a penknife (hence the name of the knife).
In China, paper was invented, which was made from bamboo fibers and old rags. To do this, the raw material was crushed, turned into a liquid slurry and applied to a flat surface (board or mesh), then dried. Dried and polished sheets of bamboo or rag mass were the first paper in the history of mankind. Modern paper technology uses the same principles, only shredded wood - cellulose - is used instead of bamboo. It is paper that has come down to our time as the main carrier of information - in the form of books, newspapers, magazines.
In China, a very extensive road network was built, which complemented the water transport system.
In Babylon, known water clock - clepsydra. The water clocks of the Egyptians, Babylonians and Greeks are based on the principle of leakage: time intervals were measured by the amount of water flowing out of a hole in a vessel. In China, India and some other countries, there were watches based on the principle of filling, when an empty hemispherical vessel with a small hole of a certain diameter floated in a larger vessel and gradually filled with water.
For the first time, wagons are equipped with spoked wheels. Models and images of two-wheeled war chariots with primitive disc wheels and four-wheeled wagons for the transport of goods are known. Oxen and mules were harnessed to the wagons.
There are wheels with spokes and a bent rim.
Bronze production begins in Central Asia.
In Central Europe, the first large mining centers appear, where metal is cast in the form of hryvnias or strips.
1900 BC e. On Crete, the heyday of the Minoan civilization. She was the first to give the world achievements comparable to the greatest achievements of other ancient civilizations. Here began to build palaces. Destroyed by an earthquake, they were completely rebuilt around 1700 BC. e. This revival is called the "golden age" of the Minoan civilization. Peace, social balance, religion, organized handicraft production allowed Crete to subjugate the entire Mediterranean to its power. The Cretans owned a number of innovations in the construction business, metal processing, and agriculture. The Minoans invented writing, moving from hieroglyphic writing to the so-called linear writing, which has not yet been deciphered. Recordings were made on clay tablets. In Knossos stood a dazzling palace complex - the center of civilization. In addition to Knossos, three more palaces were built - in Phaistos, Mallia and Zakros, as well as a number of luxurious, comfortable villas. Their walls were covered with paintings. The inner chambers were spacious and comfortable, proportionate.
1800 BC e.
In Greece, on the island of Crete, a lever press was used.
In Babylon, who ruled from 1792 to 1750. BC e. King Hammurabi wrote down his laws on a pillar of black basalt. The inscriptions representing relief male figures and wedge-shaped signs were later deciphered. A basalt pillar was found by French archaeologists in 1901 during an excavation of the ancient city of Susa.
1700–1470 The Minoan civilization reached its zenith. Highly developed agriculture brought surplus crops to villas and palaces, where they were stored, processed, and then exchanged for imported goods. There was a single social system based on consanguinity. Arts and crafts flourished.
Before 1500 BC e.
The cost of manufacturing bronze has significantly decreased, from which now, in addition to weapons and some craft tools, sickles, hoes, etc. are made. In the process of bronze production, copper and tin are obtained separately, the ratio of these components in the alloy is regulated.
The production of iron begins by the reduction of iron ores in the furnaces, which is one of the outstanding achievements of mankind. Charcoal is used as fuel. Iron melts at 1539 degrees Celsius. Such a temperature in small forges could not yet be obtained. A raw-blown process for producing iron was discovered, which during 2 and 1 thousand BC. e. spread everywhere until the XIV century AD was the only (with the exception of the crucible method, which had no significant production value) method of producing iron. During the cheese-making process, iron was mined from widespread and easily accessible deposits of brown limestone, lacustrine and marsh ores. The metal was recovered from iron ore at a temperature of 800–900 degrees Celsius. The process took place in furnaces, which were loaded with alternating layers of iron ore and charcoal, previously crushed and burned on an open fire. With the help of air-blown devices (nozzles and bellows, which at first were leather, and then wooden and metal), raw, unheated air was forced into the forge, from which the name of the whole process came from. As a result of the reduction, a lump of soft welded iron weighing up to 7 kg was formed at the bottom of the hearth. Welded iron consisted of soft metal with voids filled with hardened slag formed from waste rock and fuel ash. The slag from the lump of iron was removed by hammer blows. After forging, iron became of rather high quality, but the productivity of the first furnaces was low.
Over time, the productivity of furnaces has increased due to the increase in the hearth space and the improvement of blowers. This method of iron production was first mastered by the tribes that lived in the mountainous part of Armenia and were subordinate to the Hittite princes.
In some sources there is information that the earliest iron from ores began to be smelted in China. The manufacture of iron on a large scale does not begin until after 1000 BC. e. This method of obtaining iron influenced the development of civilization. An inexpensive method of obtaining metal was invented, which in the next millennium was widely used in the manufacture of agricultural tools and in handicraft production, as a result of which stone tools were supplanted. As a result of the widespread use of iron in production, handicrafts have finally separated from agriculture and the prerequisites are being created directly for exchange.
1400 BC e.
In Egypt, a method for the production of parchment was known, which for a long time remained the best material for writing. In Egypt, scales are used for weighing - steelyards, which later spread in Ancient Rome.
In the northeast of Mount Ararat in the village of Shohdok-Karadag, iron was obtained artificially from ore and they knew the secrets of heat treatment of steel. All technology was kept in deep secrecy because it was of military and economic importance. In those days, iron was worth several times more than gold.
1200–1100 BC e.
In the Valley of Mexico (South America), the Olmec civilization appeared, which were the first in the chain of civilizations in this region. They did not know the wheel, they did not have horses, but they created a special way of life, which received the highest incarnation in the Aztec empire. The Olmecs invented hieroglyphs and the calendar, created communications and trade, cities and sculptures.
The trading peoples of Phoenicia and Crete had the first, most ancient alphabet. The comparative simplicity of writing and remembering it contributed to the spread of writing. An alphabet is a system of written characters or letters designed to convey the sounds of speech in a language. The alphabet got its name from the first letters of the Greek alphabet - "alpha" and "beta". The Phoenician alphabet became a significant simplification of the writing required by trade. He gave rise to the Semitic alphabets - Aramaic, then Hebrew and Arabian, Armenian, Georgian and Indian. Along with Islam, the Arabic alphabet was adopted by most Muslim peoples. The ancient Greeks also borrowed the alphabet from the Phoenicians. The Latin and Church Slavonic Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets originate from the Greek alphabet, which became the basis of the modern Russian alphabet of 33 letters. Cyrillic is one of the two (together with the Glagolitic) first Slavic alphabets. Named after the Slavic educator Cyril.
During the period of the end of 2000 BC. e. - beginning of 1000 AD e.
Iron processing began in Transcaucasia. Iron came to the North Caucasus from Urartu or from Asia Minor.
Early period of development of astronomy in China. From this time until 265 AD. e. sundials, water clocks, rotating globes, compasses, gnomons are used.
Around 1000 B.C. e. On the territory of modern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala, the Yucatan Peninsula and El Salvador, the ancient Mayan civilization was created. The ruins of pyramids, temples, palaces, wall paintings of the Mayan people, who created their own written language, possessed scientific knowledge in the field of medicine, mathematics, and physics, have been preserved. The number of the ancient Maya reached 20 million people. During the heyday of the Mayan empire, the number of cities reached two hundred. Among them were 20 cities with a population of over 50 thousand people. A unique architectural style was developed in which the builders built cities with original pyramids, ball game complexes, palaces with stepped arches. There was a wide network of trade routes, methods of intensive agriculture were mastered. Of all the ancient civilizations of the South and North America, only the Maya had a writing system. With the help of a complex system of interconnected calendars, they fixed the most important dates, made astronomical forecasts, looked into such distant times that even modern specialists in the field of cosmology cannot judge. Their calculations and records were based on a flexible counting system that included a symbol for zero. This symbol was not known to either the Greeks or the Romans. In the accuracy of astronomical calculations, they surpassed other civilizations of their time.
1000 BC e.
Wooden pipes are being made, which will later play an important role in the creation of all mechanisms and devices for suction and transportation of water, in the creation of piston pumps and other mechanisms.
For the first time, wooden shovels were used, upholstered in the lower part with an iron plate. Soon an iron pickaxe appears.
In Egypt, they used indigo for dyeing, which, until the new chronology, remains the main dye.
V Ancient Greece in winemaking, an invented technical tool is used - a press for squeezing juice from grapes.
1000 - 700 BC e.
In China, during the Western and Eastern Zhou (VIII-V centuries BC), agriculture, arts and crafts were further developed. Crop rotation was developed in agriculture, a new crop appeared - soybeans. Foundry was brought to the level of art. Many beautiful bronze items and oracle bones with inscriptions have come down to our time from this era. Weapons, metallurgy, and writing flourished. Masters of the Eastern Zhou era cast bronze items of extraordinary complexity and elaborate decoration. Products made of silver and gold - vessels for drinking and eating, necklaces, belt buckles, and other luxury items surprise with the subtlety of work and sophistication.
Iron is distributed in Western Asia, southern Italy, the Balkan Peninsula, southern Romania and Central Europe. With the help of an iron ax on the European continent, deforestation took place, and iron tools and labor tools contributed to the development of agriculture.
9th century BC e. The relief of the palace of Sennacherib in Nineveh depicts a stepladder. Ladders are becoming an important auxiliary tool not only in construction, but also in mining, since mining began to be carried out deep in the ground, in mines.
8th century BC e.
In the Greek policies, and later in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, agriculture reached a higher level of development than in the countries of the Ancient East. In Greece, it was the main occupation of the majority of the inhabitants. In addition to slave labor, it used the labor of free landowners and farm laborers. A calendar of agricultural work has been established. The soil was fertilized with manure, plowing grass, burning straw in the fields, and green steam was used. They sowed wheat, barley, spelt, sesame, peas, lentils, beans, grew olives, grapes, figs, quince, and pomegranates. Much attention was paid to viticulture. All kinds of water-lifting machines were used on irrigated lands. For plowing, a primitive plow was used, which loosened the earth, but did not turn it over. The plow was made from one piece of wood or several pieces. With the spread of iron, they begin to plow with a plow with an iron share. In Greece, a plow that turns the earth over has been known since the 5th century. BC e.
In Babylon, the road was paved with limestone squares. The gaps between the masonry were filled with asphalt.
First depicted by the Assyrians on a relief in the 8th century. BC e. blocks and cams, although these devices were known before.
During excavations in Nineveh (the capital of Assyria) a bell made of bronze was found for the first time.
Around 700 BC. e.
In Assyria, the largest building was built, where the arch was used. This structure was a water supply canal built by King Sennacherib. A canal 80 kilometers long to provide water to the Assyrian capital Nineveh and the king's palace in Harsabad took 13 years to build. The building material was limestone.
In Nineveh and Jerusalem, tunnels over 500 meters long were cut into the rocks, designed to drain waste and garbage.
The oldest metal cash the bars were replaced by coins, first cast, then minted. It is believed that the first coins were made in China and Egypt. Coins remain a means of payment until the recent past.
7th century BC e.
In Byzantium, used in the middle of the 7th century. in military operations, "Greek fire" consisted of saltpeter, mountain resin and linseed oil. In warriors with swords and arrows, he inspired superstitious fear.
The first astronomical theories arose in Greece. The first models were created solar system. Thales considered the Earth to be a flat disk floating on water.
In Greece, regular mining of iron ores and non-ferrous metals is gaining ground. The main centers of Greek metallurgy are Samos, Knossos, Corinth, Lesbos, Lakonika, Aegina.
Babylon was considered the largest and richest city of the Ancient East.
The inventor of the process of soldering iron (before that, riveting was used) is often called the Greek Glaucus from the island of Chios. Apparently, the soldering technique was known before. Blacksmithing reached a high level. In the forges there was a forge with manual double air-inflating bellows. The central place was occupied by an iron or bronze anvil. Blacksmiths used hammers, pincers, some of which resembled large tweezers, articulated tongs, chisels, vices, and drills.
Along with the previously known non-ferrous metals and alloys - copper, gold and silver - antimony and brass began to be used.
Casting, forging, stamping, chasing, engraving, silvering, gilding, inlay, soldering, drawing are used to process bronze and copper. The high art of bronze casting was achieved by artisans in Ancient Greece. In the workshop there was a melting furnace with a special chamber, separated from the firebox. A large clay vessel with metal was placed in this melting chamber.
Known plano-convex ground lens of crystal. Put on during excavations in the capital of Assyria, Nineveh. The use of lenses in the next millennium contributed to the development of optical instruments, the invention of telescopes, the microscope, etc.
There is information about existing wooden and stone bridges across wide rivers. The length of the bridge over the river Euphrates in Babylon was over 300 m.
Around 600 BC. e.
In Babylon, King Nebuchadnezzar built a palace, which is called the "Hanging Gardens of Babylon". For magnificent gardens with rare trees and fragrant flowers, this building is named one of the seven wonders of the world. During the reign of this king, builders paid great attention to ways to strengthen the walls. As a rule, the walls of structures were built from layers of baked bricks on a solution of natural asphalt and from raw bricks on clay. Raw brick was used for interior walls, burnt brick for exterior. The brick was laid on mastic from a mixture of sand and asphalt. In some cases, continuous seams were made in the form of a layer of asphalt, a layer of clay every four rows of bricks, then reed mats were laid on top of the asphalt, and then all this was repeated.
For the first time, hollow casting is used in the casting of large bronze statues.
When pumping water, a water scoop wheel was used, along the circumference of which vessels were located. They were filled with water. The wheel turned and the water rose up. This device made it possible to extract water in large volumes. It played a big role and created the prerequisites for the invention of the water wheel.
With the help of rotating stone millstones, grain crops begin to grind. This device is important for the history of the development of technology in that it was in this device that later it was possible for the first time to replace manual power with the draft power of animals, and later use the energy of water.
In Greece, the philosopher Thales of Miletus (c. 625 - c. 540 BC) first determined that amber, rubbed with matter, attracts light objects. Thus, the first manifestations of electricity were revealed.
Pythagoras, in his astronomical theory, expresses an opinion about the sphericity of the Earth.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) - A Greek scientist reported that Thales first discovered such a fact as the attraction of iron filings and pieces of iron by certain types of iron ores. According to other sources, magnetism was first noticed in China, and back in 2000 BC. e.
Lathe invented. The invention is attributed to Theodore of Samos.
The Tower of Babel was built, the foundation of which was a square with a length of each side of 90 m. The height of the tower was 90 m. A temple 15 m high was built on top of it.
7th - 6th century BC e. In Assyria, under King Adad Nirar, a long and very wide bridge was built across the old channel of the Euphrates. It was 112 meters long and 21 meters wide. It was a row of fired brick pillars, standing at a distance of 9 meters from one another, with spans covered with two layers of cedar logs. The rolls of logs were covered on top with a stone pavement. A similar approach was used by the ancient builders for the construction of large buildings. To increase their width, one or two rows of columns were placed, girders were laid along them, and covering beams were laid along the girders. In many cases, the size of the temples was increased by installing only one column in the center.
6th century BC e.
An extensive road network is being created in Persia. The length of one of the highways was 2500 km.
The Persian king Cyrus organized regular courier mail on the main highways. Special station-yards were built for changing horses. This practice of mail delivery is also known in the Roman Empire, and later this pattern of mail delivery was introduced into practice in the 16th century. n. e.
The Greek philosopher Aximander (c. 610–546 BC) invented the quadrant, which later contributed to the development of astronomy.
In ancient Greece, mathematics begins to develop - a science built on strict logical evidence, as well as astronomy. The construction of mathematical theories, as well as the first astronomical theories, dates back to this time.
The Egyptians learned to distinguish planets from stars. On the vaults of temples and tombs, they depicted maps of the starry world.
In ancient Rome, the canal "cloaca maxima" was built, which serves the Romans to this day.
In ancient Greece and Rome, the production of clay products developed rapidly, and a large number of artisans were engaged in it. They made dishes, lamps, art ceramics, terracotta figurines. All dishes were made on the potter's wheel. Until the 5th c. BC e. Greek artistic pottery was painted, later relief pottery spread. From the end of the 5th century BC. e. extremely diverse in form and purpose, ceramic vases began to be covered with black lacquer with a black tint. Decorated with ornaments using special stamps and matrices.
Marble was mined in large quantities in Ancient Greece. There are known open-pit mines of marble near Athens and underground mines on the islands of Paros and Naxos. Marble was taken out either in the form of rectangular blocks or in the form of pieces irregular shape depending on the layer structure. Lumps of marble were processed with a sledgehammer and a chisel, and then they were cut off with a pointed chisel.
In construction technology in Rome in the 6th–1st centuries. BC e. adopt the order system of the Greeks. At this time, the Romans began to widely create arched and vaulted structures in construction technology, erecting large public buildings. A giant amphitheater, the Colosseum, was built, 187.5 meters long, 156.7 meters wide and up to 46.6 meters high, accommodating up to 90 thousand people.
In the construction technique of ancient Greece and Rome, clay was widely used, from which raw baked bricks were made. For the manufacture of raw bricks, clay was cleaned of solid inclusions and mixed with small straw chips. Then, from this mass in spring or autumn, when a more uniform drying was ensured, a brick was formed. After molding, it was kept for 2 years and only then used in construction. The outer walls of the buildings were laid out in one brick, the internal partitions - in half a brick. In addition to clay, limestone, marble of various colors, sandstone and materials of volcanic origin were used in construction. Granite and porphyry were used to make entire columns and facing slabs for walls and floors. The binder was three-year-old lime, which consisted of one part of lime paste and three parts of sand. Wooden, clay and stone walls were plastered using gypsum in plaster solutions. The plaster mortar was applied to the surface in several layers and after drying it acquired high strength. The wet covering layer of the plaster was painted, then a varnish film of white melted wax dissolved in oil was applied with a brush. This ensured the durability of the color of the plaster.
550 BC e. In ancient Greece, in the city of Ephesus, famous architects Harsiphon, his son Metagenes, Peonitis and Demetrius built one of the seven wonders of the world - the Temple of Artemis.
530 BC e.
In ancient Rome and ancient Greece, large centralized systems water supply. In the cities, water was supplied by gravity through channels, special ceramic pipes into wells, from which it was raised with the help of a gate. When crossing valleys and ravines, the canals were laid on special bridges - aqueducts. Some aqueducts have survived to this day and are examples of ancient engineering art. During the construction, an arched structure was used. Water was supplied through pipes to palaces and houses of nobles and wealthy citizens, as well as to baths, fountains and pools.
In Greece, the builder Evpalinos on the island of Samos built a tunnel in the rock with a length of over 1000 m for aqueduct. However, the Romans were the most successful in building aqueducts.
Mining is widespread, especially in ancient Greece and Rome. Some mines employed over a thousand slaves. In Greece, the Lavrian mines are most famous, they mined lead shine, from which lead was smelted.
In Rome, the construction of cities, roads, water supply systems, as well as to satisfy the demand of handicraft production, requires a large amount of metal and building material. The labor of numerous slaves provided Rome with iron, copper, gold and silver. When mining, they used a pick, a chisel, a crowbar, a sledgehammer, a wedge. The ore was transported to the surface by hand in baskets or leather bags. They also scooped up water.
Ore mining begins. Some mines reached a depth of more than 100 m. In some mines, the ore was lifted in buckets using a manual winch.
520 BC e. According to the then ideas about the Earth, the Greek Hekataios of Miletus (560/550 - 485 BC) drew one of the first maps of the Earth's surface.
5th c. BC e.
In Egypt, Phoenicia, Ancient Greece, an abacus (from the Greek abax - board) is used - a counting instrument, which is a board covered with a layer of sand. Lines were drawn on it with a sharp stick, and pebbles and bones (as in Russian abacus) were moved in the resulting columns for arithmetic calculations. In ancient Rome, the abacus was called calculi or abaculi. In the future, from this word came the Latin calculatore (calculate) and calculus (calculus), calculation.
In Greek agriculture, a real plow is used, which turns over the layers of the earth. Later in Italy, an improved plow with wheels and a cutter was used. Bread was reaped with sickles and scythes.
The Persian king Darius completed the canal between the Red and Mediterranean seas. According to some sources, the construction of the canal began before 1200 BC. e. The canal was operated for several centuries, repaired several times. From the 9th century BC e. the movement of ships on it was suspended, subsequently it was closed and abandoned. In the 19th century instead of the old canal, a new one, the Suez Canal, was built. The second known canal of the Ancient World was the “canal of the kings”, connecting the Euphrates and Tigris rivers, 400 km long.
With the development of cities and trade in ancient Greece and ancient Rome, wheeled transport is widely distributed.
In the Roman Empire, there is a large-scale construction of roads and bridges. 372 great roads were built, some of which connected Rome with its provinces. Roads were built, as a rule, from gravel, cobblestone and hewn stone, fastened with lime mortar. The thickness of the road surface reached 1 m. The famous Appia road was paved with stone octagons, which gave it special strength. The profile of the road was sloping, stone parapets were built on both sides of it, and stone pillars were placed almost every kilometer. In marshy places, wooden roads were built.
Rise of Athens. The flourishing of Greek architecture and construction is facilitated by the flourishing of Greek architecture and construction. Greek architects own one of the most important achievements of architecture - the creation of an order (a regular system of architectural forms): Doric, Ionic, Corinthian. Techniques of harmonic proportionality of individual parts of buildings are being developed.
Blacksmiths use pincers.
The processing of cotton, which was known before, begins.
Scissors were invented, which are used for shearing sheep, cutting and cutting fabric, as well as for cutting hair and mustaches.
In the military equipment of Athens, the main military equipment was the fleet, which consisted of almost 300 ships. For naval combat, warships were built, in which the noses were covered with copper. Transport ships were used to transport troops. The most common type of Greek military ship was a three-deck trireme - a fast, long vessel with good maneuverability. There were up to 170 rowers on the ship. The rest of the crew, including soldiers for the landing, reached 200 people.
Carpenters use frame saws with an iron cutting edge.
Gear wheels and gears begin to appear. The ancient Greek scientists Archimedes (c. 287–212 BC) or Heron of Alexandria (I century BC) were considered the inventors of these devices. In a later period, toothed crankshafts become one of the main elements of many mechanisms and machines.
In Greece, silver is mined in mines, the depth of which reaches 120 m. There were up to 1000 slaves in the mining operations. The mines were naturally ventilated. Sometimes they arranged special ventilation galleries. The mine workings were illuminated by small clay lamps, into which oil was poured. Lamps were installed in special niches.
BASICS OF THE TERMINOLOGICAL DICTIONARY
Barnaul, 2005
Developed by L.G. Apenysheva, art. lecturer in the Department of Philosophy
Course: Culturology
The manual contains material on historical eras cultures from prehistoric times to the 19th century.
Developed with the aim of orientation in the chronological dates of cultural epochs, the concepts of terms encountered in the process of studying the subject of cultural studies are given, and cultural monuments are brought into the system, which will greatly facilitate students in memorizing the material in the process of preparing for exams and tests.
When developing guidelines used literature:
1. Cultural studies. History of world culture. Ed. prof. Markova A.N.: Culture and sport; UNITY, 1995.
2. Culturology: Textbook for universities. Ed. prof. A.A. Radugina, M., 1997.
CULTURE OF THE PRIMARY ERA
Main chronological dates:
Primitive society 40 thousand years BC - 4 thousand years BC
Ancient Stone Age (Paleolithic) 40 thousand years BC - 12 thousand years BC
Middle Stone Age (Mesolithic) 12 thousand years BC - 7 thousand years BC
New Stone Age (Neolithic) 7 thousand years BC - 4 thousand years BC
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of material culture |
| Syncretism (translation from Greek - connection) - a combination of heterogeneous views. Archetype (from Greek - beginning, image) - prototype, primary form. Animism (from Latin - spirit, soul) - the belief that the soul exists independently of the body. Magic (from the Greek - magic) is a way of influencing nature and people, characteristic of a primitive society, involving the impact on a thing or image in order to influence the image on the principle of the connection of everything in everything. Fetishism (from the French - idol, talisman) - belief in the supernatural properties of material things. | The Aurignacian era is a culture of the late Paleolithic period, named after the Aurignac cave (France). Mezin art - got its name because of the Mezinskaya site (Ukraine). Maikop culture - named after the famous monument of the Maykop kurgan. Turbinsky burial ground (on the Kama) SETTLEMENTS: Kjekenmeddingi (translated from Danish "kitchen heaps") Roman terramars (from Latin - land) - fortified settlements on piles Settlement Fortress Parking Settlement BURIALS Dolmens (from the Bret. table and stone) Menhirs (from berth. Long stone) - separate stone pillars Cromlech (from Bret. round stone) - stones are arranged in a circle |
Questions for self-examination:
1. What is an archetype?
2. Tell us about the visual forms of primitive art.
3. Name the types of settlements of the primitive era.
4. What burials do you remember in the primitive period?
LITERATURE
· Brief philosophical encyclopedia. - M.: Progress, 1994.
Gribunina N.G. History of world artistic culture, - Tver, 1993
Pershits A.I. etc. History of primitive society. - M.: Higher school, 1974
· The history of the ancient world in artistic and historical images. - M.: Enlightenment, 1968.
· Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F.-S.-Pb.: Spetsliterature, 1996.
Culture of Ancient Egypt (4-3 thousand years BC - the turn of AD).
Ancient Egypt - the first state on earth, claiming world domination. The most important feature of the culture of Ancient Egypt is the protest against death, which led to the emergence of the art of making mummies, the construction of pyramids. The fine arts are characterized by a planar representation of figures, canonical conventions in the transfer of the torso and legs, geometric decorativeness with a symmetrical pattern, and strict linearity of the composition. The stagnant nature of ancient Egyptian society determined, in general, a uniform type of ancient Egyptian art and culture.
Questions for self-examination:
1. Tell us about the features of the religion of Ancient Egypt.
2. How did the Egyptians view death?
3. What is the most important feature of the culture of Ancient Egypt?
4. Tell us about the most important types of architecture in ancient Egypt.
LITERATURE
· The World History. In 10 volumes - M .: Gospolitizdat, 1956. Vol. 1 - P.
Gribunina N.G. History of world artistic culture. - believe, 1993
· The Ancient East. Ed. V.V. Struve. - M., 1953.
· The history of the Ancient World in artistic and historical images. - M.: Enlightenment, 1968
Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center, 1997
· Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F.-S.-Pb.: Special Literature, 1996
· History of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A.I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996.
Culture of Ancient Mesopotamia (Mesopotamia)
4 thousand years BC - turn of our era
The culture of Mesopotamia (the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers) is one of the oldest centers of human civilization. In Mesopotamia, various state formations rapidly succeeded each other:
Sumer and Akkad - 1U-III millennium BC
Babylonia - II millennium BC - the successor of the Sumero-Akkadian civilization, under King Hammurabi, the city of Babylon united all areas of Sumer and Akkard, the famous Code of Laws appeared.
Assyria - 1 thousand BC filled with the pathos of strength, glorified the power and victories of the conquerors, weakening religious views led to the depiction of violent scenes in art.
Iranian Empire - 11th c. BC. characterized by secular art, more calm, it does not have the rigidity that can be traced in the art of the Assyrians.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | cultural monuments |
| The cult of water is a source of goodwill that brings harvest and life The cult of the heavenly bodies - in their movement the Babylonians saw the manifestation of divine will Sixages system - exists in terms of time in minutes, seconds Sumerian cuneiform - the oldest writing of the Sumerians, based on signs from groups of cuneiform signs Ziggurat - a high multi-stage brick tower Zoroastrianism is the state religion in Iran. Named after the prophet Zoroaster Basic principles: Contrasting two principles - good and evil; faith in the victory of good main role fire plays in the ritual | Shamash-goddess of the Sun Sin - the god of the moon Adad - the god of bad weather Ishtar - the goddess of love Nergal - the god of death Irra - the god of war Vilgi - the god of fire | Sumerian cuneiform tablets The poem "Golden Age" The cycle of legends about Gilgamesh The library of Ashurbanipal The Code of Laws of Hammurabi The Tower of Babel The Hanging Gardens of Babylon (the Assyrian queen of the 9th century BC) Sasanian art |
Questions for self-examination:
1. How to explain the cruelty of the customs of Assyrian art?
2. What are the achievements in science among the inhabitants of Mesopotamia?
3. What is characteristic of Babylonian fine art?
Literature:
The World History. In 13 volumes. -M.: Gospolitizdat, 1957. Vol.3.
Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. In 2 vols. 2nd ed., 1987.
Mozheiko I. V. 7 of 37 miracles. - M.: Nauka, 1983
Gribunina N. G. History of World Artistic Culture. - Tver, 1993.
Radunin A. A. Culturology.- M.: Center, 1997.
CULTURE OF ANCIENT INDIA 3 thousand years ago BC. - turn of AD
India is one of the oldest centers of human civilization with a high center of culture. The material, spiritual and artistic culture of ancient India has taken a worthy and honorable place in the treasury of world civilization. In the XI century. BC. ideology becomes Buddhism, which has become one of the great world religions. His influence on literature and art is great.
| Terms and concepts | gods and heroes | monuments | |
| literature | architecture | ||
| A pictograph is a drawing showing the content of something. The Vedas (literally from Sanskrit "sacred knowledge") are the oldest monuments of ancient Indian literature of the 3rd - 2nd centuries. BC. contained information about agriculture, metal processing, medicine, geometry, the invention of chess Sanskrit - a processed language of late Vedic literature, widely used as an important means of communication Sutras - manuals on sacrificial rituals Varna-caste system: Castes (by professional activity) Varna (by estates ): 1. brahmins (representatives of the priestly family) 2. kshatriyas (military nobility) 3. vaishyas 4. sudras - the working population earthly desires Samsara - the doctrine of the reincarnation of the soul Karma - the law of retribution | Buddha - "overshadowed by the truth" Brahma - the creator of the Universe Vishnu - its preserving Shiva - its destroyer Bharata Krishna Rama | The Vedas consist of: 1. Rigveda - hymns of mythological content 2. Samaveda - chants 3. Yajurveda - description of Vedic rituals 4. Atharvaveda - magic spells 5. "Mahabharata" "Ramayana" | Palace of King Ashoka Stupa - religious building of Torana - gate in the circular fence of the Stambha stupa - monolithic pillars Statue of Shiva in Gudimallam |
Questions for self-examination:
1. Explain the essence of the varno-caste system.
2. Religious currents of the religions of ancient Indian society.
3. Describe the culture of Ancient India.
Literature:
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991.
Gnedich P. P. World History of Arts. - M.: Sovremenik, 2000.
Grintzer G.F. Religion of Ancient India. - M., 1959.
Mozheiko I.V. 7 of the 37 wonders of the world. 2nd ed. - M.: Nauka, 1983.
Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia in 2 volumes - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1987, Vol. 1.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F. - S.-Pb.: Special Literature, 1986
CULTURE OF ANCIENT CHINA (2 thousand years BC - borderline AD)
China is the most isolated known civilization. The Chinese believed that life is the creation of a divine, supernatural force, everything in the world is in motion as a result of the clash of Light and Darkness. The cult of nature, the cult of ancestors, the deification of royal power are characteristic. In the middle of 1 thousand BC. e. three ideological directions (hereinafter referred to as philosophical and religious systems) are formed: Taoism, the teachings of Confucius, and Buddhism. Chinese culture is very distinctive: the regulation of everyday life was strict, even the most noble people were not masters of their own destiny. The spheres of culture were subject to the state.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | cultural monuments | ||
| literature | architecture | Inventions | ||
| Taoism is a doctrine according to which the whole world is subject to a single law - "Tao", the founder of Lao Tzu (IX - the turn of the 3rd century BC) Tao (path, law) - the source of all that exists Confucianism - a religious and worldview system arose 11th - 10th centuries BC e. This is, first of all, a set of rules, moral principles, which was based on the cult of obedience to the elders Pagoda - a building consisting of supports in the form of wooden pillars, with a tiled roof with raised edges and a clearly marked cornice | Lord of the Earth Emperor's deceased ancestors Gods of the sun, moon, thunder, rain, wind Gods of war, fire Confucius 188 rulers of the past Local spirits | "Book of Songs" "Book of Changes" "Historical Notes" Treatise "mathematics in 9 chapters" | Great Wall of China Great Wild Goose Pagoda Temple of Heaven in Beijing | Water mill Magnetic instrument (progenitor of the compass) Pump Seismograph Porcelain Globe |
Questions for self-examination:
1. Tell us about the main religious and philosophical systems in China.
2. Name the technical inventions of the ancient Chinese.
3. What was the regulation of the life of Ancient China?
Literature:
The World History. In 13 volumes. - M.: Gospolitizdat, 1956. T.1., P.
Gnedich P. P. World History of Arts. - M.: contemporary, 2000.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Mozheiko I. V. 7 of 37 miracles. 2nd ed. - M.: Nauka, 1976.
History and culture of China. - M.: Nauka, 1976.
Radugin A. A. Culturology. - M.: Center, 1997.
Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F. - S. - Pb.: Spetsliterature, 1996.
ANCIENT CULTURE
The concept of "antiquity" appeared in the Renaissance, when this term (from Latin - ancient) was introduced to define Greco-Roman culture. The cultural heritage of the ancient states had a huge impact on the culture of all the peoples of Europe.
1. CULTURE OF ANCIENT GREECE (3 thousand BC - X century AD)
1. The era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture 2 thousand years ago. BC e. - XI century. n. e.
ancient civilization on the territory of Greece is called Crete-Mycenaean, its centers are the island of Crete and the city of Mycenae. All life in Crete was centered around palaces; wall paintings deserve special attention. Religion played a huge role. Here was a special form of royal power - theocracy, in which secular and spiritual power belongs to one person.
2. Homeric period IX - YIII centuries. BC e.
This period is called Homeric - after the name of the great Homer, it is distinguished by poor material culture. It is characterized by simple rough ceramics, lack of monumentality, unpretentious form of decorative art.
3. Archaic period Y - IV centuries. BC e.
It is characterized by the final decomposition of the tribal community and the formation of the ancient policy - the city-state. At this time, there was a great colonization - the development by the Greeks of the coasts of the Mediterranean, Black and Marmara Seas. The Greek religion is characterized by polytheism. The first philosophical system of antiquity arose - natural philosophy.
4. Classical period Y - IV centuries. BC e.
It is characterized by the flourishing of Greek culture, the center of which was Athens. The main task of the art of the classical period is a true image of a person - strong, energetic, full of dignity and balance of mental strength.
5. The era of Hellenism IY - I centuries. BC e.
This is the era of the spread of Greek culture throughout the territory of Alexander the Great. The construction of new cities, the development of navigation, military technology contributed to the rise of mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, geography, as well as the spread of the Greek education system. Hellenistic masters show an increased interest in the individual, the characteristic features of sculpture are dynamism and expressiveness.
| Terms and concepts | gods and heroes | cultural monuments | ||
| literature | architecture | sculpture | ||
| Tholos - view of the royal tomb (dome tomb) Polis-city-state, the civil community of which belonged to the agricultural community surrounding the city. Territory Olympic Games - sports competitions - dedicated to Zeus Pythian Games - sports and musical competitions in honor of Apollo Isthmian Games - competitions in honor of Poseidon Kouros - sculpture of a naked youth Kore - sculpture depicting a woman in a draped robe Idyll - a special kind of poetry of Mima - short dramatic skits Eclecticism - the desire to combine elements of various schools Bouleuteria - buildings of city councils | Chaos Gaia (earth) Tartarus (underworld) Uranus (sky) Titans - children of Gaia and Uranus Kronos (time) Zeus - thunder-Verzhets Hera - mistress of the sky Poseidon - lord of the sea Hades - lord of the underworld Apollo - god of Light and poetry 9 muses - the patroness of arts and sciences Aphrodite - the goddess of beauty Hephaestus - the god of fire Arrest - the god of war Athena - the goddess of wisdom Demeter - the patroness of agriculture Athena - the patroness of weaving Dionysus - the patron of Winemaking Hermes - the patron of trade | "Iliad" and "Odyssey" by Homer; "Theogyny"; Tragedy of Aeschylus "Prometheus chained"; Tragedy of Sophocles about Oedipus Rex | Colossus of Rhodes - one of the 7 wonders of the world, height 35 m Chess tombs in Mycenae Pharos lighthouse in Alexandria - one of the 7 wonders of the world Goddess of the Winds in Athens Temple of Zeus in Olympia Ansamble of the Acropolis of Athens Mausoleum in Halicarnassus - one of the 7 wonders of the world Theater in Epidaurus | Phidias: "Athena the Warrior" "Athena-Parthenos" "Zeus" (one of the 7 wonders of the world "Discobolus" Myron "Hera", "Wounded Amazon" Polykleitos "Aphrodite of Cnidus" Praxiteles "Venus de Milo" "Nika of Samothrace" "Farnese Bull" "Aphrodite Knidsky" "Laocoön" |
2. CULTURE OF ANCIENT ROME (US century BC-U century AD)
In P-1 c. BC. Hellenic states were conquered by Rome. Since that time, Italy has become the center of ancient culture.
Etruscan culture (1 thousand years BC - U century BC)
The oldest on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, preceding
Roman and had a great influence on her. Etruscan fine art is characterized by realism.
The culture of Rome in the royal period (VIII-U1 centuries BC)
At this time, Rome developed as a city-state of the Greek type.
The period of the early republic (V1-III centuries BC)
This period is characterized by the introduction of the Romans to a higher Greek culture, with the formation of the republican system, the emergence of oratory is associated. A characteristic feature of Roman thinking was practicality.
Roman Empire - from 31 BC -At c. AD a huge state of the ancient world, including the Eastern Mediterranean, North Africa, most of Europe. Achievements in the natural sciences are noted. One of the achievements of Roman culture is the literature of the early empire; portrait sculpture has become especially widespread. At the end of the second century AD a crisis begins, a characteristic feature of which was a low level of literacy, coarsening of morals, pessimism.
In 395, the empire splits into a Western empire centered in Rome and an Eastern empire centered in Constantinople. The history of the culture of the late antique period takes place in the struggle against the decaying ancient tradition with new, Christian principles.
476 is considered the end of the Ancient World, antiquity, the beginning of the Middle Ages.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | cultural monuments | ||
| literature | sculpture | architecture | ||
| Toga-Roman attire Atrium - the inner janitor of the Basilica - the building where trade transactions were made and the court was decided Amphitheaters Buildings where gladiator fights were held, as well as public actions were held Circuses - buildings where the chariot competitions of Therma took place - a complex complex of bathhouses, a favorite place for spending time noble Romans where, in addition to baths, there were eateries, libraries, small stage platforms Togatus-type of a statue depicting a speaker in a toga | Jupiter - identified with Zeus the Thunderer Neptune - the god of the sea Pluto - the god of the underworld Mars - the god of war Juno - the mistress of the sky Minerva - the goddess of wisdom Cirera - the patroness of agriculture Venus - the goddess of beauty Volcano - the god of fire Mercury - the patron of trade Janus - the deity of entry and exit, had 2 faces Domestic gods: Lares, geniuses, penates Goddess Roma - patroness of the Roman Empire Jesus Christ | "Notes on the Gallic War of Caesar "Natural History" by Pliny the Younger Poetry by Virgil, Horace, Ovid Roman "Metamorphoses" by Apuleius | "Brutus" "Orator" Busts of Cicero, Caesar | Colosseum - the largest amphitheater of the ancient world Pantheon - a temple in the name of all the gods Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill Triumphal arch - a new type of monumental structure that contributed to the construction of aqueducts, bridges |
Questions for self-examination:
1. Name the prominent figures of ancient culture.
2. What epochs can be distinguished in the history of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome?
3. What influence did Greek culture have on Roman culture?
4. Tell us about science in ancient states.
Literature:
Bonnard A. Greek civilization. - M.: Art, 1992.
Bonnard A. Culture of Ancient Rome. - M.: Science. 1985. Vol.1.
Gnedich P.P. World History of Art. - M.: Sovremennik, 2000.
Kumanetsky K. History of Culture of Ancient Greece and Rome. - M.: Higher school, 1990.
Ancient civilizations. - M.: Thought, 1989.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 vols. -M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Kun N.A., Legends and Myths of Ancient Greece. Alma-Ata, 1985.
Kochanovsky VV, History of culture of Western Europe. M.: IP
Ecoperspective, 1998
Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F. - S. -PB .: Spetsliterature, 1996.
History of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on-Don:
1. CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT SLAVES (V-IX centuries)
The ancient Slavs were people of the Vedic culture. The main monuments of Slavic antiquity are sacred songs, myths,
legends.
By the time of the adoption of Christianity, the Slavic religion did not have time to develop
strict forms of worship.
During the reign of Vladimir the Red Sun in Kiev (1015), a pagan reform was carried out. The Slavs, in addition to Greek, had their own original writing system - nodular writing. memory of the ancient
knot writing remained in the language and folklore.
2. CULTURE OF KIEVAN RUSSIA (1X-XII centuries)
The beginning of the era of Kievan Rus is usually attributed to the chronicle story about
The call to reign in Novgorod in 862 of the Varangian princes Rurik, Sineus, Truvor, or determine the time of the Kiev campaign prophetic Oleg in 882
The period ends with the reign of Yaroslav the Wise in Kiev (1919-1054),
or brought to the time of Vladimir Monomakh (1113 - 1125).
The most important event in the cultural life of this period is the adoption of Christianity by Russia. This choice was made in 998 by Prince Vladimir. The factor that prepared the adoption of Christianity by Russia was the creation by the brothers Cyril and Methodius of the 10th century. Slavic writing. Russian literature was born in the 11th century. and was elitist. The church played a leading role in the literary process. Among the genres of ancient Russian literature, chronicle occupies a central place. Another common genre is hagiography. Under the great influence of the church was another type of ancient Russian art - architecture. With the advent of Christianity in Russia, the construction of churches and monasteries began on a large scale. Stone construction began.
Kievan Rus of the pre-Mongolian period turned into a country of highly developed culture, a type of cultural and historical development of the Russian people was set, in which Christianity and paganism were closely intertwined.
| Terms and concepts | gods and saints | cultural monuments | |
| Literature | Architecture | ||
| Folklore (from English - folk art) - a set of folk ritual actions Cosmogony (from the Greek "cosmos" - the world, the Universe + "gonea" - birth) - a complex of myths about the origin of the world Theogony - a complex of myths about the origin of the gods Anthrogony - a complex of myths about the origin of people Kolyada (from Latin - the first day of the new month) - the celebration of the birth of the new sun at the end of December Temple - a place of sacrifice Chara - special vessels depicting 12 drawings that make up a circle - a symbol of 12 months of May - a symbol of spring, representing a small Christmas tree decorated with ribbons Magi - ministers of the ancient religion Hamartiology - the doctrine of sin and salvation, which is the main content of the Christian religion Chronicle - a genre in ancient Russian literature, which is a consistent description of historical events leather-covered binding Life - a genre in ancient Russian literature, biographies e famous monks, bishops, etc. Instruction is a genre of ancient Russian literature; speech of didactic content, pursuing the goal of edification Grain - a technique of execution in the jewelry and applied art of Ancient Russia, in which a pattern consisting of balls was soldered onto the product Skani - a jewelry patterned product made of thin twisted wire soldered onto a metal surface, the partitions of which were filled with multi-colored enamel | Svarog Perun Veles (Volos, later Sventovit0 Chernobog Marena Yarilo Kupala Kostroma Dazhdbog Stribog Semargl Mokosha Horse The first Russian saints Boris and Gleb | "The Tale of Bygone Years" Ostromir Gospel Mstislav Gospel The Tale of Boris and Gleb The Life of Theodosius of the Caves "Word of Law and Grace" Laurentian Chronicle Hypatian Chronicle Teachings of Vladimir Monomakh | Kiev-Pechersky Monastery Ilyinsky Underground Monastery Kiev Sophia Cathedral Golden Gate St. Sophia Cathedral in Novgorod |
Questions for self-examination:
1. Tell us about the main spiritual components of the worldview of the ancient Slavs according to the Book of Veles.
2. What influenced the adoption of Christianity by Russia?
3. List the genres of ancient Russian culture.
4. Name the main cultural monuments of Slavic antiquity.
Literature:
Gnedich P. P. World History of Arts. - m.6 Sovremennik, 2000
Rybakov B. A. Paganism of the ancient Slavs. - M.: Nauka, 1981.
Lyubimov L. The Art of Ancient Russia. - M.: Enlightenment, 1974.
Reader on the history of Russia in 4 volumes. T. 1. - M .: MIROS, 1994.
Radugin A. A. Culturology. M.: Center, 1997.
History of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996
Introduction to cultural studies. Textbook allowance for universities. - M .: Vlados, 1996
RUSSIAN CULTURE XIY - XYII centuries
Second half of the 17th century due to the rise of Russian culture as a result of the success of economic development and the victory in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). The struggle of Russian people with foreign conquerors is the main theme of literary works. Architecture, icon painting, and fresco were widely used. Wall painting in Russia of this time belongs to the "golden age".
End of XY - XYI centuries. was crowded for the historical and cultural development of Russian lands. The country finally freed itself from the Tatar-Mongol yoke, the formation of a single Russian state continued. Secular elements are growing in Russian culture. Printing played a big role. The architecture reflected the growing international role of the Russian state. Painting shows a growing interest in real historical figures and events.
Russian culture of the 17th century - at this time, serfdom was finally formed, this period can be called the Middle Ages of Russia. The sharp aggravation of the class struggle determined the name of this century - "rebellious".
The formation of the Russian nation begins. There is a formation and development of a realistic orientation, there is an interest in human
personality.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | ||
| Literature | art | Architecture, monasteries | |
| Terracotta - ceramic products from unbaked clay, red-brown and cream colors Unia - the unification of the Orthodox and Catholic churches recognition of the primacy of the Pope of Hours - a church liturgical book containing psalms, prayers Psalter - a collection of psalms included in the Old Testament "Secularization" of culture ( secularization) is a process in Russian culture of the 17th century, associated with a departure from church traditions, giving it secularity. Parsun painting - Russian portraiture (image of persons) arose in the 17th century. "Wonderful pattern" - style direction in ancient Russian architecture of the 17th century, reflecting the predilection and abundance of decorative motifs | Life of Alexander Nevsky "The Tale of the City of Kitezh" "Zadonshchina" Psalter "Apostle" Hours Domostroy Primer Vasily Burtsev Grammar by M. Smotrytsky "Convenient Counting" | Creativity of F. Grek Creativity of A. Rublev: "Trinity", frescoes "terrible judgment" | Moscow Kremlin Ensemble St. Basil's Cathedral Kitay-Gorod Bely Gorod Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye Assumption Cathedral Archangel Cathedral Church of the Intercession in Ffily Monasteries: Novodevichy Trinity-Sergius Solovetsky |
Questions for self-examination:
1. In what literary monuments is the struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar-Mongol yoke reflected?
2. What features are inherent in Russian architecture and painting of the XIY-XY centuries.
3. How did secularization affect Russian culture in the 17th century?
RUSSIAN CULTURE 18th century
Overcoming the defense of Russia from Western Europe is associated with the reforms of Peter 1 (1672-1725). In Russia, autocratic power is being established - an absolute monarchy. Peter's reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment is advancing much, which has a great influence on the further development of culture. General and special schools were opened. Extensive book publishing accelerated the development of literature. Innovations are made in architecture, due to the requirements of the government: to express in it the power and greatness of the Russian empire. The results of the historical and cultural development of Russia in the 18th century. are quite significant. Strengthening ties with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. Strengthening the power of the Russian state contributed to the formation of the Russian nation. There was a "secularization" of culture, which contributed to the emergence of its new types - fiction, theater, secular music.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | ||||
| Literature | Architecture | Sculpture of Ra | Painting | Music | |
| Moscow baroque - style of Russian architecture P floor. 17th century, notable for Bright decorativeness, symmetry of details, carvings on white stone, emphasized by the aspiration of the building upwards Russian baroque is a style of Russian architecture that has absorbed both Western and Russian traditions | "Russian grammar of M.V. Lomonosov. Satirical journals Novikov N.I. Creativity of D. Fonvizin ("Undergrowth") | Bazhenov V.P.: Palace and Park Ensemble in Tsaritsyno Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg Kazakov M.F.: Senate of the Moscow Kremlin Petrovsky Palace (Moscow) Nobility Assembly - Hall of Columns (Moscow) Trezzini: Cathedral of the Peter and Paul Fortress of Russia: Palace Square Ensemble Alexandrinsky Theater Rastrelli Jr.: Smolny Monastery Winter Palace Grand Palace in Peterhof Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo | B. Rastrelli: Bronze bust of Peter "Empress Anna Ioannovna with a black child" Sculptural portraits of F. Shubin | Nikitin I. "Peter 1 on his deathbed" Antropov A.P., Rokotov F.R., Levitsky D.T., Borovikovsky V.L. (portraits of contemporaries) | Kozlosky O.A. Russian romances Fomin E,I, opera "Orpheus", etc. |
Questions for self-examination:
1. What new areas appeared in Russian culture in the 18th century.
2. What contributed to the entry of Russia into the world historical and cultural process.
4. How did Peter's reforms affect education?
Literature:
Benois A. Guide to the Picture Gallery of the Imperial Hermitage. 2nd ed. - M .: Fine Arts, 1997.
World History, V 13 t. M., 1955-1983.
Gnedich P.P. World History of Art. - M.: Sovremennik, 2000.
Gribunina N.G. History of world artistic culture. - Tver, 1983.
Zezina M.R., Koshman L.V. and others. History of Russian culture for university students. - M .: Higher school, 1990.
Zhegalova S. K. Russian folk painting. - M .: Education, 1975.
Georgieva T.S. Russian culture and modernity. Textbook allowance - M .: Yurayt,
1999. Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center. 1997.
Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F. - S.-Pb.: Spetsliterature, 1996.
History of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996.
CULTURE OF MEDIEVAL EUROPE (U century AD - mid-XUP.)
The entire cultural life of European society of this period was determined by Christianity. The Symbol of Faith is adopted at the Universal Gathering. The basis of Christian teaching was faith in the resurrection of Christ, in the resurrection of the dead, in the Divine Trinity. The emergence of heresies dates back to the early Middle Ages. One of the tools to combat them was the Inquisition. Monasticism played an important role. The monasteries turned into wealthy centers, which were also centers of education and culture.
In the 1X-X centuries. marked by a rise in natural science knowledge. Along with the exact sciences, occult sciences were widely used: alchemy, astrology, and magic. Literature is characterized by heroic epics and chivalric romances. Urban culture was a new phenomenon in the cultural life of Western European society.
The strong role of the church was manifested in architecture, sculpture, and painting.
By the HP century. the emergence of a new architectural style - Gothic. With the development of Gothic architecture, sculpture and painting changed. The legacy of antiquity is becoming more and more pronounced.
XIII-XIU centuries. the immediate forerunners of the Renaissance culture.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | |||
| Literature | Architecture | Universities | ||
| The Inquisition (from Latin - search) is a church body designed to combat heresy (a religious movement that did not recognize official church doctrine), from the 13th century. acted as the official supreme court Indulgence (from Latin - mercy) - a letter of absolution Scriptoria - workshops at churches and monasteries in which the manuscripts of Scholasticism were copied (from Greek - school, scientist) - school science Minnesingers - singers of high love in Germany Vagants (from lat. - wandering) - wandering poets Knightly novel - an epic genre of medieval literature, in the center is the image of a knight hero, his exploits Gothic - an architectural style that arose in Western Europe in the 16th century, a characteristic feature - the aspiration of the building upwards, huge windows , decorated with stained glass windows "Flaming Gothic" - a type of Gothic, in which buildings were decorated with the finest stone carvings - stone lace Morality - an edifying drama in which there was an image of the struggle between good and evil principles for the human soul | "The Saga of Eric the Red" "The Song of Roland" The novel by Gottfried of Strasbourg "Tristan and Isolde" The Ballads of Robin Gude | Hagia Sophia in Constantinople Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris Cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester (England) Westminster Abbey in London Cathedral in Lübeck (Germany) | First university (Spain, Bologna) Universities in Oxford, Cambridge | |
Questions for self-examination:
1. What influence did the church have on the culture of the Middle Ages?
2. Tell us about the features of the architecture of Medieval Europe?
3. What is the feature of medieval literature?
Literature:
World history in 13 tons - M., 1957. T. Sh.
Gnedich P.P. World History of Art. - M.: Sovremennik, 2000.
Gribunina N.G. History of world art culture. - Tver, 1993.
From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. - M., 1972.
Brief encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2-ht. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1996.
Christianity. Encyclopedic Dictionary. - In 2 vols. - M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia, 1993.
Kochanovsky V.V. History of culture of Western Europe. M.: IP
Ecoperspective, 1998.
Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center. 1997.
RENAISSANCE CULTURE Х1У-ХУ1 cc.
Early Renaissance Х1У-ХУ centuries.
High Renaissance of the XNUMXth - XNUMXth centuries.
Late Renaissance 40s of the ХУ1 century - per. years of the XVI century.
At the end of the Х1У century. - early 16th century in Europe, namely in Italy, an early bourgeois culture began to form, which received the name of the culture of the Renaissance (Renaissance). The term "Renaissance" indicated the connection of the new culture with antiquity. This era was characterized by very significant changes in the mentality of people. Secular motifs are growing in European culture. Various spheres of social life - art, philosophy, literature, education, science - become independent from the church. The center of attention of the figures of the Renaissance was a man, therefore their worldview is designated by the term "humanistic" (from Latin - human). The humanists of the Renaissance believed that the possibilities human knowledge boundless, because the human mind is like the divine mind, and the man himself is, as it were, a mortal god. Enjoyment of earthly existence is an indispensable part of the culture of the Renaissance. The humanist movement was a pan-European phenomenon, but each country had its own characteristics in the development of the Renaissance culture.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | |||
| literature | painting | architecture | sculpture | |
| The Reformation is a strong anti-feudal and anti-Catholic movement in Europe in the first half. 16th century, which marked the beginning of a new variety of Christianity - Protestantism | "Divine Comedy" Dante; "Decameron" Boccaccio; Sonnets of Petrarch; J. Bruno "On Infinity, the Universe and the worlds"; Creativity Wil-yama Shakespeare; Cervantes novel "Don Quixote" Lope de Vega "Dog in the Manger" | Creativity of Botticelli Leonardo da Vinci ("The Last Supper", "La Gioconda") Rafael Santi ("Sistine Madonna") Giorgione ("Judith", "Sleeping Venus") Creativity of A. Duder, D. Velazquez, El Greco | Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence; Cathedral of Santa Maria della Grazie in Milan; Cathedral of Saint Peter in Rome; Palace of the Vatican | The work of Michelangelo (statue of David, sculptures "Morning", "Evening", "Day", "Night") |
Questions for self-examination:
1. What is the characteristic feature of the culture and art of the Renaissance?
2. Describe the main achievements in the literature of the Renaissance.
3. Which artists can you call the titans of the Renaissance?
Literature
Gnedich P.P. World History of Art. - M.: Sovremennik, 2000
From the history of culture of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. M., 1972.
Culture of the Renaissance and Reformation. - L., 1981.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Kochanovsky V.V. History of culture of Western Europe. M.: Ekoperspektiva, 1998.
Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center. 1997.
CULTURE OF THE ENLIGHTENMENT (1689-1789)
Enlightenment is an ideological and social movement in the countries of Europe and Africa, associated with changes in living conditions under the influence of the decomposition of feudal and the establishment of capitalist production relations. Conventionally, the historical framework of the Enlightenment is limited to 1689-1789. 1688 - the "glorious revolution" took place in England, 1789 the French revolution.
The Enlightenment left an indelible mark on science, literature, art, and politics. Enlightenment figures fought for the establishment of the "kingdom of reason", the basis of which should be "natural equality", and hence - political freedom and civil equality. The goals and ideals of the Enlightenment are the well-being and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religious tolerance and freedom of thought. Confidence in the power of the human mind, in its limitless possibilities, in the progress of science, which creates conditions for economic and social prosperity - this is the pathos of the Enlightenment. Enlighteners convinced that by enlightening the masses, educated monarchs would lead to the destruction of lawlessness. The Enlighteners came from different classes. In each country, the enlightenment movement bore the imprint of national identity. The main literary genre of the Enlightenment is the novel. At the end of the XVII - XVIII century. That musical language begins to take shape, in which all of Europe will then speak. Visual arts are characterized by the analysis of the subtlest human experiences. The most valuable heritage of the eighteenth century. the foundations of aesthetics and art history laid down in it as a scientific discipline appeared.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | ||
| Literature | Painting | Music | |
| Rococo is the leading trend in the French art of the 18th century, which is characterized by a departure from life into a world of fantasy, games; sculpture and painting are elegant, decorative and superficial in content | Tragedy by I.V. Goethe "Faust" Treatise by A.F. Bestuzhev "On Education" Journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow" by A.N. Radishchev Satirical magazines by N.I. Novikov "Gulliver's Travels" by J. Swift | Portieres Gainsborough Creativity F. Boucher ("Toilet of Venus", "Venus with Cupid", etc.) Creativity W. Hogarth Creativity Rokotov F.S. Levitsky D.G. | Creativity J.S. Bach; Creativity of G.F. Handel; Creativity of I. Haydn; W. A. Mozart's works (50 symphonies, operas "Don Giovanni", "The Marriage of Figaro", "Requiem"); The work of L.V. Beethoven (32 sonatas, including "Moonlight Sonata", "Ninth Symphony", "Solemn Mass") |
Questions for self-examination:
1. What is the historical conditioning of the Enlightenment?
2. What was the originality of the Russian Enlightenment?
3. What was the historical purpose of the Enlightenment?
Literature
Ilyina T.V. Art history. Western European Art. - M .: Higher School, 1993.
Gnedich P.P. World History of Arts. - M .: Higher School, 2000.
Encyclopedic dictionary of a young artist. - M .: Pedagogy, 1983.
Kochanovsky V.V. History of culture of Western Europe. M.: IP Ekoperspektiva, 1998
Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center, 1997.
EUROPEAN CULTURE OF THE 11TH CENTURY
The industrial revolution that engulfed European countries was an important stage in the establishment of the capitalist mode of production and was closely connected with the development of science. Х1Х century is the heyday of classical natural science. The great shifts that took place in the development of science and technology had a huge impact on the development of literature and art. The era of the formation of capitalism is also a new era in the development of European artistic culture. It was during this era that classicism, romanticism, realism, and impressionism were formed.
| Terms and concepts | cultural monuments | ||||
| Literature | painting | sculpture | architecture | music | |
| CLASSICISM (from Latin - exemplary) was associated with bourgeois education. This style is based on the ideas of rationalism; it is characterized by the expression of lofty ideals. At the same time, it has features of utopianism, abstraction | Goethe's tragedy "Faust" Schiller's tragedy "Don Carlos", "Mary Stuart" | J. L. David "The Oath of the Horatii", "The Death of Marat"; Etchings "Capriccios by F. Goya; F. A. Bruni "Death of Camilla, sister of Horace" | A. Canova "Cupid and Psyche"; Monument to Minin and Pozharsky I.P. Martos; Klodt P.K. "Horse Tamers" on the Anichkov Bridge, etc. | The Senate building in the Kremlin M.F. Kazakov; Mikhailovsky Palace (Russian Museum "in St. Petersburg of K. Russia; Ensembles in Pavlovsk-ke and Peterhof A.N. Voronikhin | |
| ROMANTICISM (from the French novel) is an ideological and artistic trend in European culture, formed under the influence of the Great French Revolution. In the work of its representatives, disappointment with capitalist reality was reflected. There was an interest in the national past, the traditions of folklore | Ballads by V.A.Dukovsky "Svetlana" Lyudmila | "Butterflies "Kreisleriana", "Carnival" by R. Schumann; "Trojans", Reviem by G. Berlioz; Poems, rhapsodies by F. Liszt; Opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila by M.I. Glinka; Operas "Rusalka" Stone guest "A.S. Dargomyzhsky | |||
| REALISM (from Latin reality) is a direction in literature and art, striving to give a true reflection of reality by specific means inherent in one or another type of creativity. | "Human Comedy" by O.Ba-lzak; "Notre Dame Cathedral" Les Misérables" by V. Hugo; "Madam Bovary" "Education of the Senses" by G. Flaubert; "Great Expectations" by Ch. Dickens "Vanity Fair" by W. Thackeray "The Forsyte Saga" by D. Galsworth-sea; "Man-of-the-invisible-dimka", "Time Machine", "War of the Worlds" by G. Wells; "Hunger" Mysteries of G. Hamsun Russian literature Creativity of A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontov, N.V. Gogol, L.N. Tolstoy, F.M. Dostoevsky, I.S. Turgenev, M.E. Saltykov-Shchedrin, A.P. Chekhov | Creativity J. Millet, I.N. Kramskoy | Operas: MP Mussorsky "Boris Godunov"; A.P. Borodin "Prince Igor"; N.A. Rimsky-Kor-sakogo "The Snow Maiden", "The Tsar's Bride"; G. Verdi "Sicilian Evening", "Ai-yes", "Don Carlos" etc.; Men", "Pearl Diggers; Ballets: P.I. Tchaikovsky's "Swan Lake" "Sleeping Beauty" The Nutcracker; A.K. Glazunova "Ray Monda" | ||
| NATURALISM (from lat. - nature) direction in European-rop. and Amer. Literature of the last third of the XIX century. Its main representatives strove for an objective reproduction of reality and man, conditioned by his nature and environment, understood as a direct everyday and material environment, but not excluding socio-historical factors. | Emile Zola (20 volume series of novels) | ||||
| SYMBOLISM direction in the art of the late Х1Х early. The twentieth century is focused on the expression through the symbol, intuitively comprehended entities and ideas, random feelings and visions. | Creativity of K. Balmont, D. Merezhkovsky, F. Sologub, A. Belov, V. Bryusov A. Blok | ||||
| IMPRESSION-ONISM (from the French impression) is a direction in the art of the last. thirds Х1Х - beg. XX centuries And he affirms the beauty of everyday reality and achieves a living authenticity of the image. The works of I. are distinguished by the sensual beauty of the world, it is characteristic for them to grasp the unique in what they see. | Creativity of C. Monet, O. Renoir, E. Degas, C. Pissarro, B. Morisot | Iron Tower of A. Eiffel (Paris) | |||
| POSTIMPRESS-ZIONISM - the general name of the currents in the painting of the end of the Х1Х beginning. XX centuries emerged in France as a reaction to impressionism. Having taken from expressionism the purity and sonority of color, P. opposed him to the search for permanent beginnings of being, increased his interest in philosophical and symbolic aspects. | Creativity of Paul Cezanne, Paul Gauguin, V. Van Gogh |
Questions for self-examination:
1. Name and describe the main artistic styles of the 19th century.
2. List Russian representatives of various styles in the art of the 19th century.
3. In what direction did impressionism find its reflection?
Literature:
Ilyina T.V. Art history. Western European art. - M.: Higher school, 1993.
World history in 13 vols. -M.: 1953-1985.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986
Gribunina N.G. History of world artistic culture. - Tver, 1993.
Radugin A.A. Culturology. M.: Center, 1997.
Culturology. Ed. Kefeli I.F. - S.-Pb.: Spetsliterature, 1996.
History of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A.I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996.
Paleolithic (40 thousand years BC-13 thousand years BC), the history of ancient Japan
In the Paleolithic era, the Earth was covered with glaciers, and the sea level was 100 meters lower than today. Japan was not yet an archipelago, but was united by isthmuses with Eurasia.
The Sea of Japan was in those days a wide lowland. Although the glaciers did not reach East Asia, they had a significant impact on the climate of those places. Japan was located in the Asian steppe ecozone, the flora of which consisted mainly of forest-steppe grasses. Of the fauna, it is worth noting mammoths, Nauman's elephants, big-horned deer and other animals that migrated to this land from Siberia.
Humans first arrived on the Japanese islands at the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic, which
lasted from 40 millennium BC. e., to 12 millennium BC. People who arrived along the isthmuses in ancient Japan obtained food by hunting and gathering, created the first rough tools of labor from stone. This time is called the period of pre-ceramic culture, because people could not make ceramic products.
Jomon period (13 thousand years BC - 3rd century BC), the history of ancient Japan
Twelve thousand years ago, the ice age ended, the glaciers melted and the water level rose dramatically all over the world. Thanks to the melting of glaciers, the Japanese archipelago was formed. Due to rapid warming and a change in the direction of ocean currents, dense forest thickets appeared in the Japanese steppes. At the same time, the migration of people from Southeast Asia to the Japanese archipelago began. These settlers were well versed in maritime navigation and shipbuilding. Apparently, their canoe-like dugout boats reached the Japanese coast thanks to the warm Kuroshio sea currents. The new group of people quickly mixed with the descendants of the paleopopulation of the Japanese Islands.
Due to climate warming, the flora and fauna of Japan has changed dramatically. The northeast of the archipelago was covered with oak and coniferous thickets, and the southwest - with beech and subtropical forests. Huge boars, deer, pheasants, wild ducks lived in these forests. In the waters washing the shores of Japan, there were red pagra, bonites, sea zanders. In the waters of Hokkaido and the Tohoku region, there were many salmon and trout. Due to natural abundance, the inhabitants of the Japanese archipelago did not require a developed Agriculture and pastoralism, they preferred to obtain food by hunting and gathering.
In the tenth millennium BC. The ancient Japanese were among the first in the world to learn how to make pottery. Among these products, deep-bottomed jugs prevailed, in which food was stored, fried and cooked food. Distinctive feature of this dish was a "lace ornament", in Japanese, jomon. A similar pattern was present on Japanese jugs until the middle of the 2nd century BC. e., which is why it is customary to call the Japanese culture of the Neolithic period the “Jomon culture”, and the time of its predominance in the Japanese islands, the Jomon period.
In the Neolithic era, the ancient Japanese began to lead a sedentary lifestyle, formed small villages of 20-30 people on low hillocks. The main dwellings were semi-dugouts and dugouts. Near the settlement there were rubbish mounds, which also served for the burial of the dead. Of the settlements of the Neolithic period, the Sannai Maruyama site, located in Aomori Prefecture, dating from the fifth century BC, is especially famous. e. and including the remains of a large settlement in which 100-200 people lived. The gender and age distribution of labor was widespread. Along with hunting and gathering, the ancient population of the Japanese archipelago grew legumes, chestnuts, buckwheat, and also cultivated oysters. Around the 4th - 3rd centuries BC. e. the Japanese learned primitive upland rice farming. Among religious beliefs, animism (belief in the animation of nature) and totemism were common. In addition, the Japanese of the Jomon period made clay figurines of female dogu and revered the forces of the Earth, symbols of birth and life.
Reconstruction of the house of the Sannai-Maruyama parking lot
Yayoi period (3rd century BC-3rd century AD), history of ancient Japan
Despite the fact that the Japanese learned to grow rice as early as the Jomon period, large-scale paddy rice cultivation using irrigation spread to the archipelago in the 1st millennium BC. For the first time, innovations were adopted in the north of Kyushu, from where rice growing spread to other areas of ancient Japan. After the spread of paddy rice cultivation, the Japanese, who lived on the hills, moved to the lowlands closer to the river valleys. The first Mura communities were formed, whose members sowed and maintained paddy fields. New tools were created, such as a stone knife-sickle, and buildings for storing rice - storage on props. The communities held celebrations, rituals and prayers for a rich harvest. At this time, the calendar was created.
Along with the culture of growing rice, the culture of smelting metals - copper, iron and bronze - came to Japan from the continent. Until the 1st century BC. e. the Japanese imported finished goods from metal, but then they created their own metallurgical production. The main bronzes were swords, halberds and spears, dotaku bells (used in agricultural rituals) and mirrors. After the spread of iron in the 2nd century AD. e. weapons from bronze turned into an object of worship.
At the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. The Japanese learned how to make ceramics of a new style, which was similar to the continental one. A feature of these products was a reddish color, the absence of ornament and a variety of types of dishes. Apparently, the progress in the manufacture of ceramics was associated with the expansion of rice cultivation. New style pottery was first found at the Yayoi settlement, after which the new ceramic culture was named. The period of dominance of this culture in the Japanese archipelago from the 1st millennium BC. e. to 3rd century AD e. is called the Yayoi period.
Thanks to the spread of rice cultivation, the population of the population of Japan during the Yayoi era increased. This growth helped create close bonds between communities, but often provoked clashes, especially over control of natural resources. Starting from the 2nd century BC. e. many villages were surrounded by ditches and wooden palisades. The population of the settlement was led by leaders who concentrated religious and military power in their hands. Settlements often united and formed the first proto-state unions. The most fortified settlement-community of the Yayoi era was the Yoshinogari site, located in Saga Prefecture, indicating a high level of associations of the ancient Japanese.
Reconstruction of the Yoshinogari site
Genre of the article - History of Japan
At the turn of 4 - 3 thousand humanity entered a new "historical" stage. "Prehistory" ended with the appearance of the first centers of Civilization in some regions of the Earth. With the growth of the first cities, with the advent of crafts and trade, with the invention of writing, with the emergence of state institutions, the “historical” stage in the development of mankind began.
2 previous questions.
The era of the appearance of early Civilizations on Earth is called the Bronze Age, since the most important feature of this period was the spread of bronze tools. The emergence of bronze, metallurgy.
Items made of gold and silver appear (2 thousand BC). used as a material for jewelry. Quite developed gold metallurgy (Egypt, Crete) These Me were not used for the manufacture of tools and weapons.
The emergence of metallurgy.
The “prehistoric” period - the Stone Age ended with the spread of metallurgy, with the transformation of bronze into the main material for the manufacture of tools (4-3 thousand BC), when the manufacture of tools from copper turned into a craft.
The first Me, mastered by mankind (6-4 thousand years BC) (but did not affect the history of mankind, since these were rare artifacts).
Allocate Chalcolithic (Eneolithic)- copper-bronze age (the main medium is stone, but copper tools are also found where there are rich deposits of copper: Anatolia (Turkey, Iraq), Asia Minor, the Caucasus, the Northern Black Sea region, Bulgaria, Iran, the Indus Valley, Egypt, south- east of Europe). But for their processing, technical devices are needed: furnaces with a temp. More than 1000 gr. (range 3-4 thousand), bronze appears (an alloy of Copper with other Me (tin, aluminum). New tools have appeared, new weapons are produced. Labor (more crops, surplus products, specialization arises (craft is separated from agriculture), there are people who are professionally engaged in state activities ..: soldiers, officials, bureaucrats. FIRST CIVILIZATIONS . Appear in the valleys of the great rivers, almost on the same geogr. Belt. The era of "River Civilizations", but there are also on about. Crete, and in Mycenae (Crete-Mycenaean) (Minoan) - AEGEAN (and on other islands of the Aegean Sea). Cities appear. Products made of bronze are more durable than those made of copper - the rapid spread of bronze in regions adjacent to the Mediterranean basin, as well as in India and China.
In America, copper products appeared in the 2nd-1st millennium BC. e. started in South America then in Central. Only some peoples of South America have bronze. There was no iron in pre-Columbian America!
Ceramics.
Products from fired clay appeared in the Neolithic era, but until the beginning of the Bronze Age, ceramics were formed by hand. Potter's wheel - 3rd millennium BC e. They made utensils, technical items (weights for nets, a whorl for looms). 3-2 thousand BC e. the art of ceramics reached a high level. The appearance of metallurgical furnaces contributed to the emergence of new technologies in ceramic production: glaze, glass.
In the 2nd millennium BC. e. ancient River civilizations simultaneously decline. A more backward, but stronger young Civilization will come to replace it.
14. Bronze collapse: the fall of bronze civilizations at the turn of 2-1 thousand BC. e.
At the end of 2-beginning. 1 thousand BC e. many “bronze civilizations fell under the onslaught of more young peoples living in conditions of military democracy (Engels, in a pre-state state.
Egypt / "peoples of the sea" (Phoenicians, proto-Greeks
China / Zhou (change of Civilizations
Crete-Mycenaean / Darians - “dark times” (the primitive people swept away the Ts. and very quickly raised their new young Ts. - classical Greece.
The Hittite Civilization fell into decline and never returned to its previous level.
Troy was destroyed.
The Indus C. fell into disrepair (then several states appeared that formed an empire
Mohenjo-Daro turned into a “hill of the dead.
This abrupt break in the history of ancient Ts. is called the catastrophe of the Bronze Age (Brobze Age Collapse
Bronze Age collapse.
1) Many old cities were destroyed: Troy, Mohenjo-Daro, Knossos, Mycenae.
2) Fading trade routes
3) population decline
4) Decline in literacy, the disappearance of certain types of writing (Mycenaean, Luwian.
Causes of collapse:
1) Physical.
A) tectonic (geological (earth, volcanoes, raising / lowering land
B) Meteorological (dry climate, drought, which worsened the socio-economic situation, led to wars and migrations. At the same time, to the north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, in the region of Atlantic storms, a more humid climate was established in the middle of winter.
2) Social causes
New peoples are more mobile, more united
- military democracy
They were in the system of the pre-state era (everyone was equal to each other, military operations were carried out together, there was nothing that hinders the development of thought, democracy. In bronze Ts., palace and temple complexes, the art of artisans was kept secret).
The arrival of the "dark ages" was reflected in the cultural level of those regions where noun. Bronze C. For example, the painting of the Knossos palace was replaced by geometric painting - a decline in style. cultural regression.
In general, it is the democratization of the foundations of social. Life has become the main factor in the formation of the classic. C. middle 2 - early 1st millennium BC. e.
AS A RESULT OF THE COLLAPSE TO REPLACE THE ANCIENT c. CAME NEW, FURTHER ACHIEVE A HIGH LEVEL OF DEVELOPMENT.
Dark Ages- a short period between the Bronze and Iron Ages, during which the highly developed bronze churches of antiquity fall into decay under the onslaught of other peoples, younger ones.
15. Material and spiritual culture of the Iron Age.
1000. BC e. in a number of regions of Afro-Eurasia, the Iron Age begins. Iron ore began to be mined in the second millennium BC. e. the first iron products appeared on Earth as early as 5-4 thousand BC. e., but within 2-htys. Rest. A great rarity. Iron metallurgy causes an overall increase in productivity. Population grows, cities rise, trade revives.
The spread of iron tools leads not only to an increase in the arbitrariness of rural labor, but also to an increase in the number of victims of military clashes. For the salvation of mankind great religious and ethical teachings arise. The “axial time” begins (an era dating back to 800-200 BC, when philosophical and religious teachings were formulated (on which, like wheels on an axle, modern culture relies) and a type of mentality characteristic of modern man arose. this time, the mythological worldview was replaced by a rational, philosophical one, which formed the type of person that exists today.In his opinion, all the teachings of the axial time (which still exist in a modified form) are distinguished by rationalism and a person’s desire to rethink the norms that existed before , customs and traditions.) (K. Jaspers).
Spiritual culture of the Iron Age:
1) Overcoming syncretism. The emergence of science, religion, art is separated from the craft
2) 2) World religions arise (6th century BC - Buddhism, 1st century AD - Christianity, 7th century (622) - Islam).
3) -People of the Iron Age - warriors, tough people of their time
4) - Alphabetical writing (phonetic notation is more convenient for interlingual communication, it is easier to record sounds)
5) Created a convenient material for writing (papyrus, parchment)
6) The meaning of all religions is the salvation of mankind.
Iron Age cultures:
1) Culture of the Sambian barrows, or West Baltic kurgans(located on the territory of the Kaliningrad region, western Lithuania, eastern Poland, western Belarus.) (The dead were cremated, placed in ceramic urns and buried in mounds.)
2) Dyakovo culture(existed in the 7th BC - 5th centuries on the territory of Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Vladimir, Yaroslavl and Smolensk regions.)
3) Culture of hatched ceramics ((VII century BC - V century AD), located on the territory of eastern Lithuania, southeastern Latvia, as well as northwestern and central Belarus. ) ( Beliefs were associated with the deification of the forces of nature, the cult of the sun and fire. Probably, the cult of the bear was quite widespread.
Burial monuments are unknown. Ware is represented mainly by stucco pots, three-bladed arrowheads, which were used by the Hunnic population.)
16. Social consequences of technological innovations of the 1st millennium BC. e.
The appearance of iron is the beginning of the manufacture of iron weapons and tools. Iron metallurgy causes a general increase in productivity. The population is growing and trade is booming.
The spread of iron tools leads not only to an increase in the productivity of agricultural labor, but also to an increase in the number of victims of military clashes. For the salvation of mankind, great religious and ethical teachings arise. (Christianity - 2nd half of the 1st century; Islam - 622, Buddhism - 6-5 centuries BC)
Read more in the manual =)
17. Great empires of antiquity.
EGYPT. 3000-30 years before new era
This empire lasted three millennia - longer than any other. The state arose, according to the latest data, more than 3000 years BC, and when the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt (2686-2181) took place, the so-called Old Kingdom was formed. The whole life of the country was connected with the Nile River, with its fertile valley and delta near the Mediterranean Sea. The pharaoh ruled Egypt (the word means a food warehouse), governors and officials sat on the ground, and in general public life in the country was quite developed (see "Science and Life" No. 1, 1997 - "The Stone Age has not yet ended" - and No. 5, 1997 - "Ancient Egypt. Pyramid of power"). The elite of society included officers, scribes, land surveyors and local priests. The pharaoh was considered a living deity, and he performed all the most important sacrifices himself.
The Egyptians fanatically believed in the afterlife, cultural objects and majestic buildings - pyramids and temples - were dedicated to it. The walls of the burial chambers, covered with hieroglyphs, told more about the life of the ancient state than other archaeological finds.
The history of Egypt is divided into two periods. The first - from its foundation to 332 BC, when Alexander the Great conquered the country. And the second period - the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty - the descendants of one of the commanders of Alexander the Great. In 30 BC, Egypt was conquered by a younger and more powerful empire - the Roman Empire.
GREECE. 700-146 BC
The southern part of the Balkan Peninsula was inhabited by people tens of thousands of years ago. But only from the 7th century BC can one speak of Greece as a large, homogeneous in culturally education, albeit with reservations: the country was a union of city-states that united at the time of an external threat, as, for example, to repel Persian aggression.
Culture, religion and, above all, language were the framework within which the history of this country proceeded. In 510 BC, most of the cities were freed from the autocracy of the kings. Athens soon became a democracy, but only male citizens had the right to vote.
The state structure, culture and science of Greece became a model and an inexhaustible source of wisdom for almost all the later states of Europe. Already the Greek scientists were wondering about life and the universe. It was in Greece that the foundations of such sciences as medicine, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy were laid. Greek culture stopped its development when the Romans took over the country. The decisive battle took place in 146 BC near the city of Corinth, when the troops of the Greek Achaean Union were defeated.
PERSIA. 600-331 BC
In the 7th century BC, the nomadic tribes of the Iranian Highlands revolted against Assyrian rule. The victors founded the state of Media, which later, together with Babylonia and other neighboring countries, turned into a world power. By the end of the 6th century BC, she, led by Cyrus II, and then his successors, who belonged to the Achaemenid dynasty, continued to conquer. In the west, the lands of the empire went to the Aegean Sea, in the east its border passed along the Indus River, in the south, in Africa, the possessions reached the first rapids of the Nile. (Most of Greece was occupied during the Greco-Persian War by the troops of the Persian king Xerxes in 480 BC.)
The monarch was called the "King of Kings", he stood at the head of the army and was the supreme judge. The possessions were divided into 20 satrapies, where the king's viceroy ruled in his name. The subjects spoke four languages: Old Persian, Babylonian, Elamite and Aramaic.
In 331 BC, Alexander the Great defeated the hordes of Darius II, the last of the Achaemenid dynasty. Thus ended the history of this great empire.
INDIA. 322-185 BC
Traditions devoted to the history of India and its rulers are very fragmentary. Few information refers to the time when the founder of the religious doctrine of Buddha (566-486 BC), the first real person in the history of India, lived.
In the first half of the 1st millennium BC, many small states arose in the northeastern part of India. One of them - Magadha - rose thanks to successful wars of conquest. King Ashoka, who belonged to the Maurya dynasty, expanded his possessions so much that they already occupied almost all of present-day India, Pakistan and part of Afghanistan. The officials of the administration and a strong army obeyed the king. At first, Ashoka was known as a cruel commander, but, becoming a follower of the Buddha, he preached peace, love and tolerance and received the nickname "Converted". This king built hospitals, fought against deforestation, and pursued a soft policy towards his people. His decrees that have come down to us, carved on rocks, columns, are the oldest, accurately dated epigraphic monuments of India, telling about government, social relations, religion and culture.
Even before his rise, Ashoka divided the population into four castes. The first two were privileged - priests and warriors. The invasion of the Bactrian Greeks and internal strife in the country led the empire to collapse.
CHINA. 221-210 BC
During the period called in the history of China Zhanyu, many years of struggle waged by many small kingdoms brought victory to the Qin kingdom. It united the conquered lands and in 221 BC formed the first Chinese empire headed by Qin Shi Huangdi. The emperor carried out reforms that strengthened the young state. The country was divided into districts, military garrisons were established to maintain order and tranquility, a network of roads and canals was being built, the same education was introduced for officials, and a single monetary system operated throughout the kingdom. The monarch approved the order in which people were obliged to work where the interests and needs of the state required it. Even such a curious law was introduced: all wagons must have an equal distance between the wheels so that they move along the same tracks. In the same reign, the Great Wall of China was created: it connected separate sections of defensive structures built earlier by the northern kingdoms.
In 210, Qing Shi Huangdi died. But subsequent dynasties left intact the foundations of empire building laid by its founder. Anyway, last dynasty Emperors of China ceased to exist at the beginning of our century, and the borders of the state remain virtually unchanged to this day.
Rome. 509 BC - 330 AD
In 509 BC, the Romans expelled the Etruscan king Tarquinius the Proud from Rome. Rome became a republic. By 264 BC, her troops captured the entire Apennine Peninsula. After that, expansion began in all directions of the world, and by 117 AD, the state stretched its borders from west to east - from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, and from south to north - from the rapids of the Nile and the coast of all of North Africa to the borders with Scotland and along the lower Danube.
For 500 years, Rome was ruled by two annually elected consuls and a senate in charge of state property and finances, foreign policy, military affairs and religion.
In 30 BC, Rome becomes an empire headed by Caesar, and in essence - a monarch. The first Caesar was Augustus. A large and well-trained army participated in the construction of a huge network of roads, their total length is more than 80,000 kilometers. Excellent roads made the army very mobile and made it possible to quickly reach the most remote corners of the empire. The proconsuls appointed by Rome in the provinces - governors and officials loyal to Caesar - also helped to keep the country from disintegration. This was facilitated by the settlements of soldiers who served in the service, located in the conquered lands.
The Roman state, unlike many other giants of the past, fully met the concept of "empire". It also became a model for future contenders for world domination. European countries have inherited a lot from the culture of Rome, as well as the principles of building parliaments and political parties.
The uprisings of peasants, slaves and the urban plebs, the ever-increasing pressure of the Germanic and other barbarian tribes from the north forced Emperor Constantine I to move the capital of the state to the city of Byzantium, later called Constantinople. This happened in 330 AD. After Constantine, the Roman Empire was actually divided into two - Western and Eastern, which were ruled by two emperors.
BYZANTIUM. 330-1453 AD
Byzantium arose from the eastern remnants of the Roman Empire. The capital was Constantinople, founded by Emperor Constantine I in 324-330 on the site of the colony of Byzantium (hence the name of the state). From that moment began the isolation of Byzantium in the depths of the Roman Empire. An important role in the life of this state was played by the Christian religion, which became the ideological foundation of the empire and the stronghold of Orthodoxy.
Byzantium existed for over a thousand years. It reached its political and military power during the reign of Emperor Justinian I, in the 6th century AD. It was then that, having a strong army, Byzantium conquered the western and southern lands of the former Roman Empire. But within these limits, the empire did not last long. In 1204, Constantinople fell under the blows of the Crusaders, which never rose again, and in 1453 the Ottoman Turks captured the capital of Byzantium.
ARAB CALIPHATE. 600-1258 AD
The sermons of the Prophet Muhammad laid the foundation for the religious and political movement in Western Arabia. Called "Islam", it contributed to the creation of a centralized state in Arabia. However, soon as a result of successful conquests, a vast Muslim empire, the Caliphate, was born. The Arab world has left indelible marks in the history of mankind, in literature, mathematics and astronomy.
From the beginning of the 9th century, the Caliphate gradually began to fall apart - the weakness of economic ties, the vastness of the territories subordinated to the Arabs, which had their own culture and traditions, did not contribute to unity. In 1258, the Mongols conquered Baghdad, and the Caliphate broke up into several Arab states.
18. Belt of classical Ts. of antiquity (1 thousand BC - beginning of 1 thousand AD)
Classical coloring arose only in the 1st millennium BC. e.
Long belt classic. C. - between 20 o and 50 o s. Sh. in the eastern hemisphere and 30 about Yu.sh. in America. In the classics About four-fifths of the planet's population lived in the C. Between all the classical C. of Afro-Eurasia there were stable ties. Never cut ties forever. America remained in isolation (Only geographic "isolation"). The very nature of human centrality forces peoples and states to strive for integration
Classic - exemplary. Civilizations that have reached their development well. These C. are a model for the present. All peoples are the heirs of the classic. C.
concentr. Large population. Earth.
In 500 BC. e. populated The planet is about 120 million people. By the 1st year of A.D. e. OK. 250 million people. Of these, 60 million in South Asia, 60 million in the Roman Empire, 60 million in India and the Parthian kingdom, from 2-3 million in the North. Africa, the same in America.
The concentration of the population led to “demographic pressure” in the ancient areas of Central Asia and the beginning of new mass migrations, which went down in history under the name of the “Great Migration of Peoples” (350-600) (there is no clear movement of migratory processes, but, mainly, with north to south).
Great Greek. Colonization (7th century BC)
The most studied is the transition from the dark ages to the aging of the classical. Civilizations on the example of the "Greek miracle" (6 - part of the 4th century BC) - the development of Greek policies. 4th c. BC e. - the flourishing of the polis system. In the 6th c. BC e. led. The rise of the Greek C. The main reason is the polis system (they built cities, all citizens have equal rights, there was no in-that bureaucracy, all citizens of the polis carried military service). Classical polis ethics tried to preserve this for a longer period. Occupied Craft, trade - not greetings. The newcomers were engaged in this and they did not have the same rights as the citizens of the policy. They are the reason for the decomposition of the polis ethics - the ethics of cosmopolitanism (it doesn’t matter which state the citizens are, the main thing is to keep track of your interests.)
Causes elevation Greek C.:
1) polis system
2) great Greek. Colonization and its consequences (excellent sailors, sailed and adopted the experiences of other peoples, the habit of mobility)
3) the presence of the alphabet and papyrus (alphabetic letter noun. In India, the Phoenicians possessed alphabetic writing. The Greeks used papyrus for writing - the development of thought).
4) Agonal spirit ("agon" - competition). Only those peoples achieve success that have developed competition. Spirit. The Greeks invented sports. The competition has been postponed. Spirit in the sphere of ms-va and science. Chorus, art of drama - manifestation. agonal spirit.
Then Greece turned into a weaker agglomeration, which is constantly threatened to capture them.
The era of empires is coming (in the middle of the 1st millennium BC) - large state. Entities in which a large number of different peoples lived. Al empires arise. Macedonian, Persian, Parthian, Kushan, Roman, Byzantine, Mauryan, Han, Maya
(Economic. Miracle - economic recovery. The example of Germany is faster than the economies of the countries that win. And the GDR).
classical empires.
Persian
Macedonian
Parthian
Kushan
Roman
Byzantine
Mauryan (India)
Maya (in the 3rd century BC they reached the level of classical C.)
