Forms of human knowledge table. The result of cognition - knowledge - is a product of the relation of thought to reality, existing in a logically linguistic form, in the form of concepts, judgments, symbols, signs. it is impossible to comprehend the essence of objects and their properties

Theory of knowledge was first mentioned by Plato in his book The State. Then he singled out two types of knowledge - sensory and mental, and this theory has survived to this day. Cognition - it is the process of acquiring knowledge about the world, its laws and phenomena.

AT structure of knowledge two elements:

• subject(“cognizing” - a person, a scientific society);
• an object(“knowable” - nature, its phenomena, social phenomena, people, objects, etc.).

Methods of knowledge.

Methods of knowledge summarized on two levels: empirical level knowledge and theoretical level.

empirical methods:

1. Observation(study of the object without interference).
2. Experiment(the study takes place in a controlled environment).
3. Measurement(measurement of the degree of magnitude of an object, or weight, speed, duration, etc.).
4. Comparison(comparison of similarities and differences of objects).

1. Analysis. Mental or practical (manual) process of dividing an object or phenomenon into components, disassembling and inspecting components.
2. Synthesis. The reverse process is the integration of components into a whole, the identification of relationships between them.
3. Classification. The decomposition of objects or phenomena into groups according to certain characteristics.
4. Comparison. Finding differences and similarities in compared elements.
5. Generalization. Less detailed synthesis - union by common features without revealing connections. This process is not always separated from synthesis.
6. Specification. The process of extracting the particular from the general, clarifying for a better understanding.
7. abstraction. Consideration of only one side of an object or phenomenon, since the rest are of no interest.
8. Analogy(identification of similar phenomena, similarities), a more extended method of cognition than comparison, as it includes the search for similar phenomena in a time period.
9. Deduction(movement from the general to the particular, a method of cognition in which a logical conclusion emerges from a whole chain of inferences) - in life this kind of logic became popular thanks to Arthur Conan Doyle.
10. Induction- movement from facts to the general.
11. Idealization- creation of concepts for phenomena and objects that do not exist in reality, but there are similarities (for example, an ideal fluid in hydrodynamics).
12. Modeling- creating and then studying a model of something (for example, a computer model of the solar system).
13. Formalization- the image of the object in the form of signs, symbols (chemical formulas).

Forms of knowledge.

Forms of knowledge(some psychological schools are simply called types of cognition) are as follows:

1. scientific knowledge. A type of knowledge based on logic, scientific approach, conclusions; also called rational cognition.
2. Creative or artistic knowledge. (It is - art). This type of cognition reflects the world around with the help of artistic images and symbols.
3. Philosophical knowledge. It consists in the desire to explain the surrounding reality, the place that a person occupies in it, and how it should be.
4. religious knowledge. Religious knowledge is often referred to as a form of self-knowledge. The object of study is God and his connection with man, the influence of God on man, as well as the moral foundations characteristic of this religion. An interesting paradox of religious knowledge: the subject (man) studies the object (God), which acts as the subject (God), who created the object (man and the whole world in general).
5. mythological knowledge. Knowledge inherent in primitive cultures. A way of cognition for people who have not yet begun to separate themselves from the surrounding world, identifying complex phenomena and concepts with gods, higher powers.
6. self-knowledge. Knowledge of one's own mental and physical properties, self-understanding. The main methods are introspection, self-observation, the formation of one's own personality, comparing oneself with other people.

To summarize: cognition is the ability of a person to mentally perceive external information, process it and draw conclusions from it. The main goal of knowledge is both to master nature and to improve the person himself. In addition, many authors see the goal of cognition in a person's desire for

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Basic concepts

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sense cognition

Cognition through the senses (sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch).

Forms of sensory cognition:

feeling

This is a reflection of the individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process;

perception

Sensual image of a holistic picture of the subject;

performance

The image of the object of knowledge, imprinted in memory.

rational knowledge

Knowledge through thinking.

Forms of rational knowledge:

concept

This is a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object, phenomenon, process;

judgment

This is a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, phenomenon, process;

inference (conclusion)

The mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them. Types of reasoning: inductive (from particular to general); deductive (from general to particular); Similarly.

intuition

The ability to directly comprehend the truth as a result of "illumination", "influx", "enlightenment" without relying on logical justifications and evidence (a kind of conjugation of the sensual and the rational in cognition). Types of intuition: mystical - associated with life experiences, emotions; intellectual - associated with mental activity.

empiricism

The only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.

agnosticism

Philosophical position that denies the cognizability of the surrounding world.

rationalism

Our knowledge can only be obtained with the help of the mind, without relying on the senses.

knowledge

The result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.

False

Conscious distortion of the image of the object

delusion



Lectures

What is knowledge? Knowledge classification

Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, the content of consciousness obtained by a person in the course of active reflection, ideal reproduction of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.
The term "knowledge" is ambiguous. (see the scheme "Knowledge. Polysemy of the concept")
Types of knowledge:
Zhiteiskoe- is empirical. Based on common sense and ordinary consciousness. It is the most important indicative basis of everyday behavior of people, their relationship with each other and with nature. It boils down to stating facts and describing them.
Scientific- understanding of reality in its past, present and future, reliable generalization of facts. Provides foresight of various phenomena. Reality is clothed in the form of abstract concepts and categories, general principles and laws, which often take on extremely abstract forms (formulas, graphs, diagrams, etc.).
Practical- mastery of things, transformation of the world.
artistic- a holistic display of the world and the person in it. It is built on the image, not on the concept.
Rational- reflection of reality in logical concepts and categories. Associated with rational thinking.
Irrational- is not connected with rational thinking and even contradicts it. The subject is emotions, passions, experiences, intuition, will, as well as some phenomena, for example, anomalous, characterized by paradox and not subject to the laws of logic and science.
personal- depends on the abilities of the subject and on the characteristics of his intellectual activity.
Forms of knowledge allocated in relation to scientific knowledge:
Prescientific- prototype, prerequisites for scientific knowledge (elements of science until the 16th century).
Unscientific- disparate, non-systematic knowledge that is not formalized and not described by laws.
parascientific- outwardly similar to scientific, but incompatible with existing scientific knowledge. A wide class of parascientific knowledge includes doctrines about phenomena, the explanation of which is not convincing from the point of view of scientific criteria;
pseudoscientific- deliberately using conjectures and prejudices. As symptoms of pseudoscience, illiterate pathos, fundamental intolerance of refuting arguments, as well as pretentiousness are distinguished. Pseudo-scientific knowledge is very sensitive to the topic of the day, sensation. Its peculiarity is that it cannot be united by a paradigm, cannot be systematic, universal.
anti-scientific- Utopian and deliberately distorting the idea of ​​reality. . The prefix "anti" draws attention to the fact that the subject and methods of research are opposite to science.
For more details, see the scheme "Knowledge classification"

Sensory and rational cognition

Cognition has two forms - sensory knowledge and rational knowledge. Sensual and rational cognition are two stages of cognition and do not contradict each other. These two forms of cognition are in constant interaction and form an inseparable unity of the cognitive process. Rational forms of cognition are impossible without forms of sensory cognition, because from here they draw their source material. At the same time, sensory cognition is under the influence of rational.
Sensory cognition is always subjective, but it is this level of cognition that connects a person with the outside world.
FORMS OF SENSUAL KNOWLEDGE:
1. Feeling- reflection of individual properties of an object, phenomenon, process, resulting from their direct impact on the senses. With the help of these organs, a person feels the individual properties of an object - shape, color, smell, etc.
2. Perception- a sensual image of a holistic picture of an object, process, phenomenon that directly affects the senses. Perception also serves as the main form of representation formation.
3. Submission- sensory-visual, generalized image of an object, process, phenomenon, stored and reproduced in the mind and without direct impact of the objects of knowledge themselves on the senses. In other words, this is what is preserved in the memory of a person after getting to know the subject.
Rational knowledge is knowledge carried out by the mind (from Latin ratio - mind, reason). Rational knowledge, inherent only to man, is a more complex way of reflecting reality, which is carried out through thinking.
FORMS OF RATIONAL KNOWLEDGE:
1. Concept- a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object. Concepts expressed in speech single word, are interconnected and form a judgment.
2. Judgment- a thought that affirms or denies something about an object.
3. Inference- the mental connection of several judgments and the derivation of a new judgment from them. An example of a logical conclusion: if a>b, and b>c, then a>c. Or for example: All people are mortal. Ivanov is a man. Therefore, Ivanov is mortal
Types of inferences:
inductive reasoning- from the particular to the general.
deductive reasoning- From general to specific.
Obtained by analogy.

Do we know the world? (Problems of the theory of knowledge)

To think about what knowledge is, what are the ways of acquiring knowledge, a person began already in ancient times, when he realized himself as something that opposes nature, as an agent in nature. Over time, the conscious posing of this question and the attempt to solve it acquired a relatively harmonious form, and then there was knowledge about knowledge itself. All philosophers, as a rule, one way or another, analyzed the problems of the theory of knowledge.
There were three approaches to the question of how a person cognizes the world:
Sensationalism(Epicurus, F. Bacon, L. Feuerbach) - they believed that we know the world through feelings.
Rationalism(Plato, R. Descartes, B. Spinoza) - these philosophers argued that we cognize the world with reason.
Agnosticism(D. Hume) - denial of the possibility of knowing the world.

Lecture:

In the previous lesson, it was said about the elements of a person's worldview. Knowledge plays an important role among them. Knowledge about the surrounding world, nature, man is the result of their own cognitive and research activities. And they are also accumulated over the centuries and passed on from generation to generation, like a precious experience. Knowledge is constantly deepening, expanding and improving. Remember the main definition of today's lesson:

Knowledge- this is one of the elements of a person's worldview, acting in the form of learned concepts, laws, principles.

Gnoseology - the science of knowledge

Is it possible to know everything? What are the limits of human knowledge? The answers to these and similar questions are sought by the philosophical science of epistemology - the doctrine of knowledge and the possibilities of cognition. Cognition is the main subject of epistemology, which is the process of acquiring knowledge about the surrounding world and oneself. In the course of cognitive activity, a person explores the external aspects and internal essence of objects and phenomena. One of the main questions of epistemology is the question: "Do we know the world?". People respond to it in different ways and, accordingly, are divided into gnostics (optimists), agnostics (pessimists) and skeptics. If the Gnostics believe that the world is knowable, then the agnostics deny such a possibility, and the skeptics do not deny the possibility of knowing the world, but doubt the reliability of the knowledge received, the reliability of their truth.

Cognition begins with the sensory perception of the world and gradually turns into a rational understanding of the world. Let's look at the stages of knowledge.

Steps (levels) of knowledge

There are two levels of knowledge: sensual and rational. Sense cognition through the sense organs (sight, touch, smell, hearing, taste). This is a direct form of cognition, in the process of which knowledge is obtained through direct contact. For example, you went outside and felt cold. Thus, the sensory level allows you to know only the external properties of the object of knowledge. This level includes three forms. Remember them:

Feeling- reflection in the mind of the individual properties of the object of knowledge. For example, the apple is sour, the voice is pleasant, the stove is hot.

Perception- a reflection of all the properties of the object of knowledge in its entirety. For example, we eat an apple, we feel its taste (a separate property), but at the same time we perceive the smell, color, shape of the apple as a whole.

Performance - the image of the perceived object of knowledge, preserved in memory. For example, we can remember and imagine how delicious the apple we ate yesterday was. Representation can occur not only with the help of memory, but also with the help of imagination. So, even before the construction of the house, the architect can imagine what it will be like.

The result of sensory knowledge is image. The role of sensory knowledge is great. The sense organs connect a person with the outside world, without them he is not able to think and learn. Sensory cognition is inherent not only to man, but also to higher animals.

The next step is rational knowledge happens with the help of the mind and abstract thinking. If sensory cognition occurs directly, then rational is a mediated form of cognition. For example, to find out whether it is cold outside or not, a person does not have to leave the house, just look at the thermometer. If at the sensory level a person cognizes the external properties of the object of knowledge, then at the rational level the internal properties of the object, its essence, are established. This level of knowledge also includes three forms:

concept- this is a thought that fixes the signs and properties of the object of knowledge. For example, "Tree". Concepts in the human mind are interconnected and form judgments.

Judgment- a thought that affirms or denies something about a cognizable object. For example, "All trees belong to the class Plants".

inference - the final conclusion, which is formed in the process of thinking over concepts and judgments. For example, “Spruce is a coniferous tree. Since all trees belong to the class of plants, therefore, spruce is also a plant.

The result of rational knowledge is knowledge. Rational knowledge is unique to man. Consider the illustration. Thinking is a holistic process that occurs as a result of sensory and rational knowledge.

What level of knowledge is more important, primary? In relation to this issue in philosophy, two opposing trends have emerged: rationalism and sensationalism (empiricism). Rationalists recognize reason and abstract thinking as the basis of knowledge. For them sensory knowledge is secondary. And sensualists (empiricists) in the first place put sensation, perception and representation, that is, feelings. For them secondarily rational knowledge.

In fact, the sensory and rational levels of cognition are a single process. It's just that sensory cognition prevails in some cognitive processes, while rational cognition prevails in others.

Types of knowledge

Knowledge is possible in the most different areas. There are many types of knowledge, respectively, and types of knowledge. Consider scientific and non-scientific knowledge.

scientific knowledge is a systematically organized process of obtaining objective and reasonable true knowledge.

Its features and distinguishing features are:

• Objectivity - the desire to study the world as it is, regardless of the interests and aspirations of the subject of knowledge.
• Validity - reinforcement of knowledge with evidence, facts and logical conclusions.
• Rationality - the support of scientific knowledge on thinking, the exclusion of personal opinions, emotions, feelings.
• Consistency – structured scientific knowledge.
• Verifiability - confirmation of knowledge in practice.

Consider the process of scientific knowledge on the example of a biologist's study of the dependence of plant height on climate. So, the scientist suggested that the trees are on average taller in areas with a warm climate. (This is a statement of a hypothesis that is confirmed or refuted by the results of the study.) In search of evidence, the biologist went south, measured the height of three hundred trees, and recorded the results of the measurements. (This is the empirical level of scientific knowledge.) Returning to the laboratory, the scientist made calculations, compared the data, convincingly confirmed the correctness of his hypothesis and drew conclusions. (This is the theoretical level.)

Scientific knowledge is impossible without identifying cause-and-effect relationships. One phenomenon or event is associated with some other, which is called a cause and generates an effect. Let's take a very simple example. Petya and Kolya are walking along a narrow path (event). Petya stepped on Kolya's foot (event). The result is a sore leg. The reason is the narrow path. Thus, to identify cause-and-effect relationships means that it is necessary to establish the dependence of one phenomenon on another.

One of the types of scientific knowledge is social knowledge.

social cognition- this is the knowledge of the laws and principles of the functioning of society, culture, man.

The result of social cognition is social and humanitarian knowledge, which we study in the lessons of history and social science. Social science is an integrated school subject and includes several social sciences and humanities (philosophy, sociology, economics, political science, jurisprudence, cultural studies, psychology, etc.). Social cognition differs from natural science in a number of essential features. Consider them:

• if in natural science cognition the subject is a person, and the object is objects and phenomena, then in social cognition the subject and object of cognition coincide, that is, people cognize themselves;
• if the main feature of natural science knowledge is objectivity, then social and humanitarian knowledge is subjective, because the results of research by sociologists, historians, ethnographers, and jurists are interpreted depending on their own views and judgments;
• if natural scientists who study nature strive to achieve absolute truth, then scientists who study man and society achieve relative truth, because society is dynamically and constantly changing;
• the application of many natural scientific methods of cognition in social cognition is limited, for example, it is impossible to study the level of inflation under a microscope, this is done by abstraction.

The impetus for the beginning of social cognition is social facts (the actions of individuals or groups), someone's opinions and judgments, as well as the results of material and non-material activities of people. Social research is aimed at discovering historical patterns and social forecasting. To achieve these goals, scientists and researchers use social reality (practice), historical informants (archaeology, documents) and the experience of generations.

Discovery of historical pattern occurs when an objectively repeating connection is found between social phenomena and processes. Undoubtedly, historical events and personalities are unique, for example, there cannot be two absolutely identical wars or presidents. However, some of them have common features and trends. When these features and tendencies are constantly repeated, one can speak of a historical pattern. An example of a historical pattern is the rise and fall of any empire.

In the study of society and history, two approaches have developed:

formational (K. Marx, F. Engels);

civilizational (O. Spengler, A. Toynbee).

The classification of societies within the framework of the formational approach is based on a regular change in socio-economic formations from lower to higher, from simple to complex: primitive society → slave society → feudal society → capitalist society → communist society. The driving force behind this development is the class struggle, for example, in a slave-owning society - the struggle between slave owners and slaves, in a feudal society - the struggle between feudal lords and peasants. Throughout history, society develops, moving from one formation to another. The ultimate goal of this movement, according to the teachings of K. Marx, F. Engels, and then V.I. Lenin is communism.

Socio-economic formation- this is a stage in the evolution of society, characterized by a certain stage in the development of the productive forces and the production relations corresponding to it.

If the formational approach focuses on the universal, then the civilizational approach studies the uniqueness and uniqueness of the history of each people or country. Therefore, the classification of societies within the framework of the civilizational approach is based on the spiritual, ideological, and cultural factor. This approach to the study of history and society focuses on the local and regional characteristics of a particular society. So, they distinguish Russian, Chinese, Japanese, Indian societies or civilizations. There are civilizations that have long disappeared, for example, the Mayan civilization, the Roman civilization. Most modern scholars adhere to a civilizational approach to the study of history and society.

Civilization- this is a stage of social development that has stable features of material production, spiritual culture, lifestyle of a particular region.

social forecasting engaged in the science of futurology. Its main goal is to develop options for the development of society or its objects. Forecasting is possible in various spheres of society, in economic, legal, cultural. It is carried out by such methods as analysis, comparison, questioning, experiment, etc. The value of social forecasting is great. For example, labor market forecasting provides information about in-demand professions and vacancies.

Let's talk briefly about non-scientific knowledge and its types.

Unscientific knowledge - knowledge of the world around, based on faith and intuition.

• Ordinary knowledge based on observations and common sense of a person, consistent with his life experience. Ordinary knowledge is of great practical value; it is a guideline for a person's everyday behavior, his relationships with other people and nature. characteristic feature common knowledge is that they describe what is happening: “paper is on fire”, “an object thrown up will surely fall to the ground”, but they do not explain why this is the case, and not otherwise.

• mythological knowledge is a fantastic reflection of reality. Myths originated in primitive society. At primitive people there was not enough experience to understand the true causes of the origin of man and the world, natural phenomena, so they were explained with the help of myths and legends. Myths still exist. The heroes of modern myths are Santa Claus, Baba Yaga, Batman, etc.

• religious knowledge - this is knowledge based on religious texts (Bible, Koran, etc.).

• Artistic knowledge is knowledge by means of art, The world is reflected not in concepts, but in artistic images of works of literature or theater, music or cinema, architecture or painting.

• folk wisdom - these are fairy tales, proverbs and sayings, accumulated over the centuries and passed down from generation to generation, songs that teach how to behave towards others.

• parascience- near-scientific knowledge that arose long ago, when science was not yet sufficiently developed. Unlike science, parascience does not provide facts, it is based on assumptions that are not confirmed by research. Parasciences are ufology, astrology, telepathy, magic, extrasensory perception and others.

Exercise: Give arguments proving the benefits of knowledge for a person, society and the state. Write your opinion in the comments. Be active, let's help each other replenish the treasury of arguments for an essay)))

The topic is considered difficult, since we will study the essence of the internal processes of the brain and We will define the concept of TRUTH, as well as highlight the TYPES of KNOWLEDGE. We start each topic with a definition. So what is knowledge? If it is human, then what is it for, what is it aimed at, what is its PURPOSE?

Let's remember what signs characterize the ACTIVITY of a person? This Accordingly, these are signs of COGNITIVE ACTIVITY.

So let's define it!

What characterizes it, what problems does it solve? The theory of knowledge is called GNOSEOLOGY (from the Greek gnosis - knowledge). Epistemology solves a number of important cognitive problems of the order.

So, do we know the world? If you answer YES, you are a GNOSTIC! If you answer in the negative, referring to the weakness of the human senses (it is common knowledge that a dog's sense of smell is much stronger than a human's, the vision of birds of prey is many times greater than that of a person), then you are an AGNOSTIC. The Irish philosopher D. Berkeley illustrated this discussion in this way on the example of the dispute between the Greek sages Philonius and Hylas.

Truly, my opinion is that all our opinions are equally vain and unreliable. What we approve today, we condemn tomorrow... And I don't think that we can know anything in this life. Our abilities are too limited and too few.

Filonius. How! Are you saying we can't know anything, Hylas?

Hylas. There is not a single thing of which we can know its real nature, or what it is in itself.

Filonius. Are you saying that I don't really know what fire or water is?

Hylas. You may know, of course, that fire is hot and water is fluid; but it means to know no more than what sensations are evoked in your own soul when fire and water come into contact with your sense organs. As for their internal structure, their true and real nature, then in this respect you are in complete darkness ”(D. Berkeley).

Try to determine who is GNOSTIC and who is AGNOSTIC here? Gilas says:

“... Our abilities are too limited, and there are too few of them ... There is not a single thing regarding which we could know its real nature ... As for their internal structure, their true and real nature, then in this respect you are in complete darkness ... ".

He denies the possibility of TRUE knowledge, he is an AGNOSTIC. So, one more important for our lesson, the key term:

TRUTH is the correspondence of our ideas about a cognizable object to its real essence.

Other important questions theories are solved depending on the type of WORLD VIEW - and (PRACTICAL). A person with a religious type of worldview will answer the question about the origin of the world "This is an act of divine creation", and with a scientific one - from the point of view of the "Big Bang" theory.

Both the person in this case will be right... Right from the point of view of his type of worldview! Here we come to the KINDS OF TRUTH. In this case - the truth Both subjective points of view are equally generally accepted! Agnostics assert the impossibility of achieving complete knowledge about the subject, phenomenon. In their opinion, it is impossible to comprehend the essence of things; one can only approach complete, exhaustive knowledge. So they recognize the possibility of RELATIVE TRUTH. Gnostics, on the contrary, recognize the possibility of obtaining complete knowledge - ABSOLUTE TRUTH. Thus, there are two types of truth - ABSOLUTE TRUTH AND RELATIVE TRUTH.

ABSOLUTE TRUTH - exhaustive knowledge about the subject (phenomenon), which will never be refuted.

RELATIVE TRUTH - ? Think about the wording?

We see that the complexity of the topic is that one type of truth easily turns into another, and then can turn into So, the ideas of medieval people about the structure of the world were for them the ABSOLUTE TRUTH (Earth is the center of the Universe), were refuted by the HELIOCENTRIC THEORY of Copernicus - Bruno, and today it seems to us a ridiculous delusion.

What is the mechanism of COGNITIVE ACTIVITY of a person? It begins with our sense organs, which, in contact with a cognizable object, supply information about it to the brain (sight, touch, smell, hearing, taste). This primary information is

Other forms of SENSUAL (EXPERIMENTAL, EMPIRICAL KNOWLEDGE) - (assessment received from SENSATION and - the image of the perceived object, which our brain can reproduce with the help of ABSTRACT THINKING at any moment, without even touching it with the senses.

What types of SPIRITUAL ACTIVITIES are typical for A here is based on rational logical thinking. But, sensory knowledge gives her information, for example.

Science is conceptual knowledge. Accordingly, RATIONAL (mental) cognition begins with
CONCEPTS - definitions of the object under study.
The concepts are linked to A JUDGMENT is a complete thought.
The chain of logical judgments turns into CONCLUSION - final conclusion, which in science takes the form A THEORY explaining a cognizable phenomenon.

Thus, sensory knowledge is a prerequisite

The main ways of cognition, which form specific TYPES as a result, are

• RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE - based on faith;
• AESTHETIC - by means of art, based on ideas about beauty;
• SCIENTIFIC - based on theoretical and logical reasoning;
• ORDINARY - based on practical experience and everyday ideas of a person.

Now let's consolidate the theoretical knowledge gained today on the example of solving tasks! First, we will complete task 27 of the test from (for example

We apply our knowledge on the topic “Types of knowledge” and fill in the missing words and phrases in the gaps.

And our answer, which we transfer to the form, is a digital sequence 769854. Now we're doing the hard stuff writing assignment 25 of USE demos 2016.

Task 25. What is the meaning of social scientists in the concept of "relative truth"? Drawing on the knowledge of the social science course, make two sentences: one sentence containing information about the criteria (s) for determining the truth, and one sentence revealing the features of this type of truth.

We argue! Today we have identified two truths - relative and absolute. So relative truth is a kind of truth. Now let's remember what distinguishes it, a feature? For example, the result of a certain level of development of science.

We give a definition:

"Relative truth is a kind of truth that characterizes a certain stage in the development of science."

In the definition of TRUTH, we see that this is knowledge corresponding to reality. We answer, adapting as much as possible to the wording of the question:

"The criterion for determining truth is the correspondence of cognizable reality."

One sentence revealing the features of this (relative) kind of truth. What else characterizes RELATIVE TRUTH?

"Relative truth is characterized by subjectivity."

And our full answer:

“Relative truth is a kind of truth that characterizes a certain stage in the development of science.

1. The criterion for determining the truth is the correspondence of the cognizable reality. 2. Relative truth is characterized by subjectivity.

Thus, today we have dealt with you two topics from - Types of knowledge. The concept of truth, its criteria.

Section Cognition

Cognition: levels and methods.

Cognition is a process of human activity, the main content of which is the reflection of objective reality in his mind, and the result is the acquisition of new knowledge about the world around him.

Representatives of various philosophies responded differently to the question of possibilities of knowledge peace.

Cognition has two levels (two sides) - sensory cognition - is carried out by the senses (sight, hearing, smell, touch, taste) and rational cognition - inherent only to man, is a more complex way of reflecting reality, which is carried out through thinking.

Forms of sensory knowledge

Feeling- a reflection of the individual properties of an object, I phenomenon, process, arising as a result of their direct

Stvenno impact on the senses.

Perception- a sensual image of a holistic picture of the first object, process, phenomenon, directly affecting

Howling at the senses.

Performance- sensory-visual, generalized image of an object, process, phenomenon, stored and reproduced in the mind and without direct impact of the objects of knowledge themselves on the senses.

Forms of rational knowledge

concept- a thought that affirms the general and essential properties of an object, process, phenomenon.

Judgment- a thought that affirms or denies something about an object, process, phenomenon.

inference(conclusion) - the mental connection of several judgments and the selection of a new judgment from them.

The question of the place of sensory and rational cognition is considered differently.

Empiricism - the only source of all our knowledge is sensory experience.

Rationalism - our knowledge can only be obtained with the help of the mind, without relying on feelings.

Truth is knowledge corresponding to its subject, coinciding with it.

Absolute truth is exhaustive reliable knowledge about nature, man and society; knowledge that can never be refuted.

Relative truth is incomplete, inaccurate knowledge corresponding to a certain level of development of society, which determines the ways of obtaining this knowledge; it is knowledge that depends on certain conditions, place and time of its receipt.

Objective truth is the content of knowledge that does not depend on man or humanity.

Criteria (measurements, indicators, that which certifies the truth and distinguishes it from error ) truths:

compliance with the laws of logic;

compliance with previously discovered laws of science;

practice;

simplicity, economy of form.

A delusion is an INCONSCIOUS distortion of the image of an object, it is the content of knowledge that does not correspond to reality, but is accepted as truth.

A lie is a conscious distortion of the image of an object.

Knowledge- the result of cognition of reality, obtained by a person in the course of active reflection of objective regular connections and relations of the real world.

Kinds of knowledge

scientific knowledge

Scientific knowledge is a special kind of cognitive activity aimed at developing objective, systemically organized and justified knowledge about nature, man and society.

The main features of scientific knowledge are the following:

Objectivity of the obtained knowledge;

The development of the conceptual apparatus (categoriality);

Rationality associated with consistency,

Consistency;

Evidence and verifiability;

High level of generalization of knowledge;

Versatility;

The use of special methods and methods of cognitive activity.

Scientific knowledge has its levels, forms and methods.

Law- an objective, essential, universal, repetitive, stable connection between phenomena and processes.

Problem- conscious formulation of questions that arise in the course of cognition and require an answer.

Hypothesis(gr. hypothesis - basis, assumption) - a scientific assumption formulated on the basis of a number of facts, the true meaning of which is uncertain, is probabilistic in nature and needs to be proven, verified, substantiation.

Theory- the most developed form of scientific knowledge, giving holistic display of regular and essential relationships a certain area of ​​reality, a system of laws.

Method(path of research) is understood as tool, means of knowledge.

The universal methods of scientific knowledge include analysis and synthesis.

Analysis(gr. analysis - decomposition) - the process of mental or actual decomposition of the whole into its constituent parts.

Synthesis(gr. synthesis - connection) - the process of mental or actual reunification of the whole from parts.

Induction(lat. inductio - guidance) - the path of experimental study of phenomena, during which a transition is made from individual factors to general provisions. Certain facts seem to suggest general position.

Deduction(lat. deductio - derivation) - proof or derivation of a statement (consequence) from one or more other statements (premises) based on the laws of logic, which is reliable.

The universal method of scientific knowledge is analogy(gr. analogia - correspondence) - the similarity of non-identical objects in some aspects, qualities, relationships. In modern science, the so-called similarity theory, which is widely used in modeling, is a developed area for the systematic application of analogy.

Modeling- reproduction of the characteristics of some object on another object (model), specially created for their study.

Abstraction(from lat. abstractio - distraction) - one of the universal methods of cognition, which consists in mental abstraction from a number of properties of objects and relations between them and the allocation of any property or relationship.

Formalization(lat. forma - view, image) - clarification of the content of knowledge, carried out by comparing the objects, phenomena, processes being studied with some material structures that make it possible to identify and fix the essential and regular aspects of the objects under consideration.

Mathematization- usage various ways measurements that allow assigning certain numbers to material objects and their properties, and then, instead of laborious work with objects, act with numbers according to certain mathematical rules.

“Science formulates its conclusions in ____________ (1), laws and formulas, taking out of brackets the emotional attitude of the cognizer _____________ (2) to the phenomena being studied. Everything that science makes its ___________ (3), it explores from the side of regularities and _______ (4). Scientific

knowledge is based on the system __________ (5) and develops its own ___________ (6), different from

ordinary."

A) question E) theory

B) subject G) language

C) problem 3) subject

D) method I) reason

Answer: EZBIGZH.

Social sciences, their classification

Social sciences are a form of spiritual activity of people, directions for the production of knowledge about society.

The most general knowledge about society as a whole is called upon to provide such sciences as philosophy and sociology.

The most important social sciences

Social and humanitarian knowledge

Social cognition is the process of acquiring and developing knowledge about a person and society.

Features of social cognition

1. The subject and object of knowledge are the same.

2. Received social knowledge is always associated with interests individuals- subjects knowledge.

3. Social knowledge is always loaded with evaluation is valuable knowledge. natural science - "truths of the mind", social science - "truths of the heart".

4. The complexity of the object of knowledge- a society that has a variety of different structures and is in constant development. Therefore, the establishment of social patterns is difficult.

5. Since social life changes very quickly, in the process of social cognition one can speak of the establishment of only relative truths.

6. The possibility of using such a method of scientific knowledge as an experiment is limited.

To describe and understand social phenomena allows the correct approach to them. This means that social cognition should be based on the following principles:

Consider social reality in development;

To study social phenomena in their diverse connections, in interdependence;

Identify the general (historical patterns) and the special in social phenomena.

Interpretation social fact is a complex procedure for its interpretation, generalization, explanation.