Sources of obtaining geographic information. Khanty-Mansi Autonomous Okrug. What will we do with the received material?

The economic and social geography of the world is a socio-geographical science, the subject of which is the general patterns of development and distribution of the population and economy on the globe, as well as in individual regions and countries. The most important goals of her research are the search for rational resettlement and distribution of the economy and the optimization of the relationship between the development of society and nature.

Methods of geographical research - ways to obtain geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) Cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of Russian economic geography, Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky, is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) Historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: ​​the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3) Statistical method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area, reserves natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economic and mathematical. If there are numbers, then there are also calculations: calculations of population density, birth rate, mortality and natural population growth, migration balance, resource provision, GDP per capita, etc.

5) The method of geographical zoning. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods of research in geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is subject to comparison: more or less, profitable or unprofitable, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7) Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material that is the subject of study.

8) Method of remote observations. Modern aerial and space photography are great helpers in the study of geography, in the creation of geographical maps, in the development National economy and nature protection, in solving many problems of mankind.

9) Method of geographical modeling. The creation of geographic models is an important method for studying geography. The simplest geographic model is the globe.

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve global problems.

To study the nature of continents and oceans, geographers use general geographical and industry methods research.

One of the main research methods in geography are observation and dimension, thanks to which they collect primary geographic information about the characteristics of continents and oceans. Direct observations and the necessary measurements are carried out during expeditions, staying directly at the object under study, for example, at a scientific station in Antarctica. Often they are carried out from research ships or even from cruise ships, from the orbits of space stations and geophysical rockets, from artificial Earth satellites and laboratory aircraft (Fig. 4).

Space observations have enriched geographical science with new knowledge. During observations of the ocean near Antarctica with the help of a satellite, ocean vortices with a diameter of 30 to 200 km were first noticed and determined that they are similar to cyclones and anticyclones of the atmosphere. With the help of satellites, movements of lithospheric plates were recorded, reaching approximately 10 cm per year. Thanks to the survey of the ocean floor by spacecraft, they found differences in the topography of the ocean floor compared to the land surface and created the corresponding maps.

On the basis of the obtained primary geographic information, layouts or models (Fig. 5) are created, landforms, cyclones and anti-cyclones, rivers with a dam and a reservoir, natural complexes, etc., various maps are developed.

In geography, there are also methods for obtaining secondary geographic information. This is due to the fact that many geographical objects are inaccessible to direct observation or are very large. Then scientists-researchers resort to the use of previously obtained and ordered data.

Scientists accumulate secondary geographical information gradually. The sources of information for them are maps, especially thematic ones, analyzing which can compare phenomena, create an image specific territory (Fig. 5). Ordered geographic information is given and tables, combining the various characteristics of the territory. An example of such a table is the geochronological scale. The source of secondary geographic information is graphs, charts, profiles.(Remember what kind of graphs of temperature changes, wind rose, climate diagrams, relief profiles look like.)

An important method of obtaining secondary information in geography is also descriptions, especially when it comes to the characteristics of the nature of individual continents, countries, mysterious seas and islands. Nowadays, the function of description is also performed by various video media - cinema and television.

A new source of secondary geographic information is geographic information system (GIS), designed for computer reading, analysis and provision of information. material from the site

GIS is fast. In GIS, there is a certain set of programs that help you quickly (in 3-5 minutes) create any geographic map. At the same time, the necessary data are entered, and their analysis is carried out automatically. And when working with atlas maps, when it is necessary to detect a certain relationship, for example, between the relief and the structure of the earth's crust, five times more time is used, because multi-scale maps located on different pages are needed.

Geographic maps can be classified according to various criteria.

Thematic maps show only one or a few events in detail. Examples of thematic maps: vegetation map, climate map, geological map, soil map, political map, etc.

On general geographical maps, both natural objects and phenomena (relief, rivers, lakes, vegetation) and socio-economic (settlements, roads, industrial enterprises). Names are signed on them: oceans, rivers, seas, bays, straits, lakes, rivers; continents, islands, capes; plains, mountains, ranges; settlements, etc. The names of settlements are displayed to the right of the symbol, parallel to the southern frame or along the nearest parallel. The names of the rivers are placed in the middle of the channel or along its axis, and the names of the seas, islands and states - inside the contours, located in the direction of greater length.

Rice. Classification of geographical maps

The cards also distinguish by area coverage. The classification of maps according to the size of the territory depicted on them includes the following groups: 1) maps of the starry sky; 2) maps of the planets and the Earth; 3) maps of the hemispheres; 4) maps of continents and oceans; 5) maps of the seas, bays, straits; 6) maps of countries; 7) maps of large natural regions; 8) maps of republics, territories, regions, administrative regions; 9) maps of cities; 10) maps of urban areas.

There is a classification of cards by appointment, taking into account the diversity of spheres of human activity. For example, scientific reference maps are designed to carry out scientific research and obtain reference information, tourist maps - to obtain information about interesting objects in the area, cafes, hotels, technical maps - to solve engineering problems. Educational maps are the main visual aid in the study of geography, as well as economics, history and other academic disciplines.

Divide cards into groups by scale. There are small-scale maps with a scale smaller than 1:1,000,000 intended for studying large areas, medium-scale maps with a scale from 1:200,000 to 1:1,000,000, and large-scale maps with a scale of 1:200,000 and larger.

Large-scale maps are topographic maps.

Let us remind you that by its content cards can be:

• general geographical;
• thematic.

Vegetation maps, for example, depict the distribution and composition of vegetation different territories. There are also mineral maps, forest maps, relief maps, synoptic maps, industry maps, which show large cities - industrial centers and their specialization. All these maps characterize geographical objects and phenomena on a specific topic: vegetation, relief, industry. That is why they are called thematic. For example, a political map will first of all give an idea of ​​the location of countries, their borders.

General geographic maps display various elements of the earth's surface - relief, vegetation, rivers, settlements, transport networks, etc. For example, a physical map of Russia.

By area coverage distinguish between maps of the world, individual continents, countries and their parts (regions).

A political map of the World

A political map of the World- one of the most important cartographic sources in the world geography course, as this hag shows different countries, their capitals, communication routes and other useful information.

Let's look at the political map. In addition to the borders of states, on the political map you see the largest cities and capitals of countries, communication routes and seaports, the largest hydrographic objects (seas, rivers, lakes, bays, straits). Some other geographic features, such as relief, may also be shown.

On the political map of the world you will find more than 230 countries and territories.

The borders of the state are formed for a long time. They can change for various reasons: historical, political, economic, cultural, natural.

In order to know the political map of the world or individual continents and their parts, it is necessary to constantly refer to it, train in determining the geographical position of certain countries or regions, and follow the changes taking place in the world.

The most complex is the political map of Western Europe. Let's determine the geographical position of the countries of this region together (Table 1).

Map of time zones- an interesting, and most importantly, useful map (Fig. I).

For the convenience of counting time, the entire surface of the Earth was divided into 24 time zones. The time of each time zone differs from the next one by one hour. The numbering of zones from 0 to 23 is carried out from west to east from Greenwich meridian. In all points located within the same zone, the same standard time. Moscow, for example, is in the second time zone.

However, in Moscow we live not according to the belt, but according to maternity time(from lat. decretum - decree, decree). In addition, you know that in Russia the clock hands move forward (summer time) or backward (winter time) by one hour in order to rational use daylight hours and energy savings. Therefore, Moscow, being in the 2nd time zone, practically lives according to the time of the 3rd time zone. In other words, when it is 13 o'clock in Moscow (Moscow time), then in Paris it is 11 o'clock (Central European time), in London it is 10 o'clock (Greenwich time).

Rice. 1. Map of time zones of the world

Look at the hag of time zones. The boundaries of time zones are not drawn exactly along the meridians. For convenience, the borders of states, regions, states and other administrative-territorial entities within the same country are taken into account. In Russia, for example, the 11th and 12th time zones are combined into one.

And air transport, telephone and telegraph communications on the territory of the country work, as a rule, according to a single time. In Russia, for example, according to Moscow time.

If you take a close look at the map of time zones, you will notice how remarkable the 180th meridian is. Conditional passes through it date line. Its zigzag in the area of ​​the Chukotka Peninsula is not accidental. The fact is that on both sides of this line, the hours and minutes are the same, and the calendar dates differ by one day. If the date line crossed Chukotka, its inhabitants would have to maintain their own calendar, one day ahead of the national one.

If you ever decide to make a trip around the world and go from Cape Dezhnev to the east, crossing the international date line, do not forget to count the same day twice. And vice versa, moving from east to west - skip one day.

Statistical materials are one of the main sources of geographic information

is a science that studies the totality of mass phenomena in order to take into account and identify the patterns of their development using quantitative (statistical) indicators. The population is just such a mass phenomenon. Statistical indicators include absolute and relative values, as well as various coefficients.

Absolute values are informative and show the size of geographical phenomena. For example, Russia has the most large area in the world - more than 17 million km 2, which is almost twice the territory of countries such as China, USA or Canada. However, in terms of population, Russia is inferior to many countries. In 2007, the total population was 142 million people. - eighth place in the world.

Table 2. Population of the largest countries of the world (million people)

Relative value expresses the result of comparison (comparison) of statistical indicators with each other. They allow you to detect certain changes in geographical phenomena, their trend.

Coefficients - indicators reflecting characteristics individual phenomena, such as the coefficient of specialization or natural population growth.

In order to learn how to work with statistical materials, one must first of all imagine how they are organized and built (ordered).

Statistical table is a system of vertical and horizontal graphs (columns and rows) provided with headings and filled in a certain order with digital data. It contains the statistical data necessary to characterize the studied geographical phenomenon and its constituent parts. The headings of the horizontal rows of the statistical table correspond to the statistical "subject", and the top headings of its vertical columns correspond to the statistical "predicate".

Let's look, for example, at the statistical table. 3 "Changes in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the data of the 1926-2002 censuses."

Table 3. Change in the share of economic regions in the population of Russia according to the 1926-2002 census data, %

In the statistical subject, an enumeration of those parts and groups of the phenomenon under study, which are quantitatively characterized in the predicate, is given. AT this case are the economic regions of Russia. In the predicate of the table, the values ​​of the phenomenon under study are given - the proportion of the population living in the economic regions of the Russian Federation for a number of years.

Thus, any statistical table includes three mandatory elements:

• general table header;
• statistical subject;
• statistical predicate.

Statistical materials can be presented not only in statistical tables, but also in a visual form: in diagrams, graphs, maps, maps.

Statistical maps These are primarily cartograms and cartograms. Let's go with you, using the table. 4, compose on contour map a cartogram showing the population density of the economic regions of Russia:

• write down the name of the cartogram (“Population density of the economic regions of Russia”);
• write out the name of the source, on the basis of which we will build a cartogram (statistical table "Population density of economic regions of Russia");
• we write down the relative statistical indicators that we will depict, having previously rounded their values ​​to integers;
• Let's divide the indicators into groups according to the principle of equal intervals. The easiest way to break it down is to divide the difference between the largest (63) and smallest value (1) of the indicator by 5. In our case (63 - 1 = 62 * 60: 5 = 12), the interval will be 12, and the groups of indicators will be as follows: 1 - 12; 12-24; 24-36; 36-48; 48-60 and more than 60 people / km 2;
• compile a cartogram legend in a notebook, where darker tones of color (or denser shading) depict a greater intensity of the phenomenon; light shades (or rare shading) - smaller. For a color image, it is better to take shades of one paint: from lighter to darker;
• we will show on the contour map the boundaries of the economic regions of Russia;
• transfer the legend of the cartogram to the contour map in the "Legends";
• Let's make a chart.

Construction of graphs and charts based on statistical indicators has a mathematical basis that is well known to you.

Based on their graphs, we can conclude that up to the 90s. 20th century in the resettlement of the population of Russia, the historical trend of developing new lands and Russian outskirts was preserved.

Since the 1990s there is a reverse trend of population decline in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, primarily the Far East and North.

Diagrams show the volume and structure of geographical phenomena. They can be circular, point, linear, areal, volumetric, etc. (Fig. 2). Recall that when constructing pie charts the initial radius is considered to be directed upwards on a sheet of paper, i.e. "northern". It is from him, clockwise, that indicators are plotted by eye (based on I% \u003d 3.6 degrees), characterizing a geographical phenomenon, for example, the resettlement of the Earth's population, depending on the proximity of the seas.

Rice. 2. Settlement of the Earth's population depending on the proximity of the coast of the seas and oceans

The scale of the diagram depends on: a) the size of the sheet; b) the value of the initial indicators; c) the difference between the highest and lowest values ​​of indicators; d) the number of diagram signs.

To determine the scale bar chart, for example, you must first establish what the largest and smallest bars can be. The basis of the diagram is determined by the formula X = A: M, where X is the basis of the diagram; And - the statistical indicator used by us; M is the scale base, which shows how many units of this indicator fall on 1 square. mm chart area. It is composed like this. First, an axial line is drawn - the base of the diagram, and then the perpendiculars are restored, taking into account the scale.

Mapping on a contour map is reduced to the construction of diagrams within the boundaries of a certain territory, for example, within the boundaries of large regions of Russia, economic regions, subjects of the Russian Federation.

Gender and age pyramid allows you to visually analyze the sex ratio by age groups of the population. It is built as follows. On the vertical axis, age is plotted at regular intervals (in the form of age intervals; for example, 0-5, 5-10, 10-15, etc.), and on the horizontal axis - to the left - the number (or proportion) of men, and to the right - women (in the same scale). For each age group, they build their own linear diagram and, as it were, “string” them one after another from bottom to top - from the base of the pyramid to its top (Fig. 3). The shape of such a pyramid can be used to determine the features of the age structure of the population, to identify the features of the sex ratio in different age groups. Read from age and sex pyramids Quantitative data on the ratio of sexes and age groups of the population can be used for further calculations of generalizing demographic indicators (for example, dependency ratios of the population), their analysis and comparison.

Rice. 3. Gender and age pyramids

The question arises of how to update statistical materials, because they become outdated pretty soon. To do this, there are statistical collections, reference books, periodicals, Internet resources.

Geographic information systems as a means of obtaining, processing and presenting geographic information

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a computer database that stores geo-information in the form of maps of various content, digital and textual information on objects plotted on these maps. Information can be presented on the monitor screen and in the form of printouts of any scale, tables, graphs, diagrams for any of the information blocks.

By spatial coverage, global, national, regional, local and city GIS are distinguished. By purpose, they are divided into resource-cadastral, land, environmental, geological, marine, educational, etc.

Thus, geographic information systems (GIS) are special systems capable of collecting, systematizing, storing, processing, evaluating, displaying and disseminating data at a new technical level and obtaining new geographic information on this basis. Very effective, for example, is the use of educational GIS when comparing thematic maps of different content for the same territory, whether it be a country or a region; when establishing various geographic links.

Let us pay special attention to opportunities and resources of the Internet, which can be used by you in the process of studying the course. They include:

• educational resources WWW (World Wide Web);
• E-mail (electronic mail);
• teleconferences.

Educational resources on the World Wide Web can be helpful:

• to search for additional and updated (including statistical) information for lessons in the process of preparation;
• to search for information in the process of preparing various kinds of creative works (reports, abstracts, business games, educational conferences, etc.).

Email can be used:

• to exchange educational creative works with their peers from other schools, regions of our country;
• for mutual exchange of information in the process of solving problems of distance learning and telecommunication projects.

Teleconferencing can be helpful:

• with participation in various kinds of educational and informative telecommunication projects.

A geographical map is a reduced generalized image of the earth's surface, showing the location, state and relationships of various natural and social phenomena, their changes over time, development and movement in accordance with the purpose of this map.

It is reasonable to consider geographic maps as visual figurative-sign models. They have the main features of models in general: abstraction from the whole for the study of a part - a specific territory, specific phenomena and processes; simplification, which consists in refusing to take into account many characteristics and relationships and in preserving some of the most significant ones; generalization meaning highlighting common features and properties, etc. These abstractions contribute to a deeper understanding of the phenomena depicted on the maps.

The first feature of geographic maps is the construction with the help of cartographic projections, which make it possible to obtain correct data on the position, planned dimensions and shape of depicted terrestrial objects from maps.

The second feature of geographical maps - the use of cartographic signs as a special map language - makes it possible to:

a) depict the earth's surface with the desired reduction (i.e., on the desired scale) in order to cover with a single glance the necessary part or even the entire earth's surface, while reproducing on the map those objects that, due to reduction, are not expressed on the scale of the map, but in their own way value should be shown;

b) show on the map the relief of the earth's surface (for example, using contour lines), i.e., convey terrain irregularities in a flat image;

c) not be limited to displaying the surface of objects on a geographical map, but indicate their internal properties (for example, on a sea map, you can show the physico-chemical properties of water, currents, topography and soils of the seabed, and much more);

d) show the spread of phenomena that are not directly perceived by our senses (for example, magnetic declination, gravity anomalies, etc.), and make visible connections and relationships that are inaccessible to direct perception (for example, between sources of raw materials and enterprises for its processing);

e) exclude less significant aspects, particulars and details inherent in single objects, and highlight their common and essential features (for example, characterize settlements in terms of population and administrative significance, refusing to transfer their layout), i.e. resort to abstraction.

Particularly important is the third feature of geographical maps - the selection and generalization of the depicted phenomena, that is, cartographic generalization.

Geographic maps have been and remain the main source of geographic information. Maps allow a one-time overview of space in any range - from a small area to the surface of the Earth as a whole. They create a visual overview of the shape, size and relative position of objects, allow you to find their spatial dimensions: coordinates, lengths, areas, heights and volumes. Maps contain the necessary quantitative and qualitative characteristics of these objects and, finally, show the links existing between them: spatial and some others. These properties explain the meaning and value of the cards for practice.

Geographic maps, fixing the position, state and spatial relationships of specific objects (phenomena), allow not only to economically and expressively express knowledge about the location of phenomena, but also to find the patterns of this location. In some branches of knowledge, maps are used as the main means of research.

Maps serve as reliable guides on land and ocean, in troop movements and camping trips, for flying in an airship and for walking.

In military affairs, they are the main source of information about the terrain and an indispensable tool for commanding troops and organizing their interaction.

In industrial, energy and transport construction, maps are used as a basis for surveys, design and transfer to nature of an engineering project. Now the best routes railways, highways and pipelines are not found in the field, but are outlined according to topographic maps in the offices of design organizations.

Maps are widely used in agriculture in land management, land reclamation, measures to improve soil fertility, to combat erosion, and in general for accounting and the most correct, effective use all land funds.

Maps are an indispensable tool for school and out-of-school education. They are not only a repository of accumulated geographical knowledge, but also an effective means for their dissemination, the rise of a common culture. It is no exaggeration to say that cards are used to some extent in all spheres of human activity.

Maps acquired great importance as a means of scientific research, especially geographical ones. Each geographic study, one way or another, proceeds from existing maps, provides materials for their implementation and improvement. The scope of the use of maps as a means of scientific research is expanding rapidly as the pace of scientific progress generally increases. In particular, this expansion is facilitated by advances in the development of informatics and in the development of modeling theory.

The study by computer science of the general problems of collecting, storing and transferring knowledge makes it possible to fully appreciate the advantages of geographical maps as a special form of processing, presentation and analysis of spatial information. As noted, these advantages lie in the possibility of a one-time, holistic perception of cartographic images, in the visibility of territorial differences and the convenience of analyzing spatial combinations, relationships and patterns.

The modeling method in geography, geoinformation and remote methods are based on the cartographic method. The vigorous introduction of modeling methods into modern science has revealed the real power of maps as generalized and simplified spatial images of the real world in application to cartography, that is, its models that reflect those aspects, properties and processes of reality that are important for the purposes of specific research. Maps allow you to gain new knowledge, study development processes and predict many phenomena. The development of methods for using maps as a means of research is one of the main tasks of modern cartography.

Despite the introduction of new methods in geography, the cartographic method is one of the main ones in research. And although now maps are often stored in computer memory and are part of geoinformation systems that receive information from satellites and from numerous weather stations, including data banks containing reports on the results of the work of many research teams, the map remains the most perfect way to transmit spatial information.

Methods of geographical research - ways of obtaining geographic information. The main methods of geographical research are:

1) cartographic method. The map, according to the figurative expression of one of the founders of the Russian - Nikolai Nikolaevich Baransky - is the second language of geography. The map is a unique source of information! It gives an idea of ​​the relative position of objects, their size, the degree of distribution of a particular phenomenon, and much more.

2) historical method. Everything on Earth develops historically. Nothing arises from scratch, therefore, for the knowledge of modern geography, knowledge of history is necessary: ​​the history of the development of the Earth, the history of mankind.

3)Statistical Method. It is impossible to talk about countries, peoples, natural objects without using statistical data: what is the height or depth, area of ​​​​the territory, reserves of natural resources, population, demographic indicators, absolute and relative indicators of production, etc.

4) Economics and Mathematics. If there are numbers, then there are calculations: calculations of population density, mortality and population, balance, GDP per capita, etc.

5) Geographic zoning method. The allocation of physical-geographical (natural) and economic regions is one of the methods for studying geographical science.

6) Comparative geographical. Everything is comparable:
more or less, profitable or disadvantageous, faster or slower. Only comparison makes it possible to more fully describe and evaluate the similarities and differences of certain objects, as well as explain the reasons for these differences.

7)Method of field research and observations. Geography cannot be studied only sitting in classrooms and classrooms. What you see with your own eyes is the most valuable geographical information. Description of geographical objects, collection of samples, observation of phenomena - all this is the factual material, which is the subject of study.

8) remote observation method. Modern aerial and space photography are great helpers in the study of geography, in the creation, development of the national economy and nature protection, in solving many of the problems of mankind.

9) Geographic modeling method. The creation of geographic models is an important method for the study of geography. The simplest geographic model is .

10) Geographic forecast. Modern geographical science should not only describe the studied objects and phenomena, but also predict the consequences that humanity can come to in the course of its development. A geographic forecast helps to avoid many undesirable phenomena, reduce the negative impact of activities on nature, rationally use resources, and solve problems.