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An ambiguous personality was Catherine the Great - the Russian Empress of German origin. In most articles and films, she is shown as a lover of court balls and luxurious toilets, as well as numerous favorites with whom she once had a very close relationship.
Unfortunately, few people know that she was a very smart, bright and talented organizer. And this is an indisputable fact, since the political changes that took place during the years of her reign were related to. In addition, the numerous reforms that affected the public and state life of the country are another proof of the originality of her personality.
Origin
Catherine 2, whose biography was so amazing and unusual, was born on May 2, 1729 in Stettin, Germany. Her full name is Sophia Augusta Frederica, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst. Her parents were Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst and his equal in title Johanna-Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp, who was related to such royal houses as English, Swedish and Prussian.
The future Russian empress was educated at home. She was taught theology, music, dance, the basics of geography and history, and, in addition to her native German, she also knew French very well. Already in early childhood, she showed her independent character, perseverance and curiosity, preferred lively and outdoor games.
Marriage
In 1744, Empress Elizaveta Petrovna invited the Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst to come to Russia with her mother. Here the girl was baptized according to the Orthodox custom and began to be called Ekaterina Alekseevna. From that moment on, she received the status of the official bride of Prince Peter Fedorovich, the future Emperor Peter 3.
So, the fascinating story of Catherine 2 in Russia began with their wedding, which took place on August 21, 1745. After this event, she received the title of Grand Duchess. As you know, her marriage was unhappy initially. Her husband Peter was at that time still an immature youth who played with soldiers instead of spending his time in the company of his wife. Therefore, the future empress was forced to entertain herself: she read for a long time, and also invented various amusements.
Children of Catherine 2
While the wife of Peter 3 looked like a decent lady, the heir to the throne himself never hid, so almost the entire court knew about his romantic passions.
After five years, Catherine 2, whose biography, as you know, was also full of love stories, started her first romance on the side. Guards officer S. V. Saltykov became her chosen one. September 20, 9 years after her marriage, she gave birth to an heir. This event became the subject of court discussions, which, however, continue to this day, but already in scientific circles. Some researchers are sure that the boy’s father was actually Catherine’s lover, and not her husband Peter at all. Others say that he was born of a husband. But be that as it may, the mother did not have time to take care of the child, so Elizaveta Petrovna herself took over his upbringing. Soon the future empress became pregnant again and gave birth to a girl named Anna. Unfortunately, this child lived only 4 months.
After 1750, Catherine had a love relationship with S. Poniatowski, a Polish diplomat who later became King Stanislaw August. At the beginning of 1760, she was already with G. G. Orlov, from whom she gave birth to a third child - the son of Alexei. The boy was given the surname Bobrinsky.
I must say that due to numerous rumors and gossip, as well as the dissolute behavior of his wife, the children of Catherine 2 did not cause any warm feelings in Peter 3. The man clearly doubted his biological paternity.
Needless to say, the future empress categorically rejected all the accusations made by her husband against her. Hiding from the attacks of Peter 3, Catherine preferred to spend most of her time in her boudoir. Relations with her husband spoiled to the extreme led to the fact that she seriously began to fear for her life. She was afraid that, having come to power, Peter 3 would take revenge on her, so she began to look for reliable allies at court.
Accession to the throne
After the death of his mother, Peter 3 ruled the state for only 6 months. For a long time he was spoken of as an ignorant and weak-minded ruler with many vices. But who created such an image for him? Recently, historians are increasingly inclined to think that such an unsightly image was created by memoirs written by the organizers of the coup themselves - Catherine 2 and E. R. Dashkova.
The fact is that her husband's attitude towards her was not just bad, it was clearly hostile. Therefore, the threat of exile or even arrest looming over her served as an impetus for the preparation of a conspiracy against Peter 3. The Orlov brothers, K. G. Razumovsky, N. I. Panin, E. R. Dashkova and others helped her organize the rebellion. On July 9, 1762, Peter 3 was overthrown, and a new empress, Catherine 2, came to power. The deposed monarch was almost immediately taken to Ropsha (30 miles from St. Petersburg). He was accompanied by a guard of guards under the command of
As you know, the history of Catherine 2 and, in particular, the one arranged by her are full of riddles that excite the minds of most researchers to this day. For example, the cause of the death of Peter 3 has not yet been precisely established 8 days after his overthrow. According to the official version, he died from a whole bunch of diseases caused by prolonged alcohol use.
Until recently, it was believed that Peter 3 died a violent death at the hands of Alexei Orlov. The proof of this was a certain letter written by the murderer and sent to Catherine from Ropsha. The original of this document has not been preserved, but there was only a copy allegedly taken by F. V. Rostopchin. Therefore, there is no direct evidence of the assassination of the emperor yet.
Foreign policy
It must be said that Catherine 2 the Great shared the views of Peter 1 to a large extent that Russia should take a leading position in all areas on the world stage, while pursuing an offensive and even to some extent aggressive policy. Evidence of this can serve as a break in the alliance treaty with Prussia, previously concluded by her husband Peter 3. She took this decisive step almost immediately, as soon as she ascended the throne.
The foreign policy of Catherine II was based on the fact that she everywhere tried to elevate her proteges to the throne. It was thanks to her that Duke E. I. Biron returned to the throne of Courland, and in 1763 her protégé, Stanislav August Poniatowski, began to rule in Poland. Such actions led to the fact that Austria began to fear an excessive increase in the influence of the northern state. Its representatives immediately began to incite Russia's old enemy - Turkey - to start a war against her. And Austria still got her way.
We can say that the Russian-Turkish war, which lasted 6 years (from 1768 to 1774), was successful for Russian Empire. Despite this, the internal political situation that developed not in the best way inside the country forced Catherine 2 to seek peace. As a result, she had to restore former allied relations with Austria. And a compromise between the two countries was reached. Poland became its victim, part of whose territory in 1772 was divided between three states: Russia, Austria and Prussia.
The annexation of lands and the new Russian doctrine
The signing of the Kyuchuk-Kaynarji peace treaty with Turkey ensured the independence of Crimea, which was beneficial for the Russian state. In subsequent years, there was an increase in imperial influence not only on this peninsula, but also in the Caucasus. The result of this policy was the incorporation of Crimea into Russia in 1782. Soon the Treaty of St. George was signed with the king of Kartli-Kakheti, Heraclius 2, which provided for the presence of Russian troops on the territory of Georgia. Subsequently, these lands were also annexed to Russia.
Catherine 2, whose biography was inextricably linked with the history of the country, from the second half of the 70s of the 18th century, together with the then government, began to form a completely new foreign policy position - the so-called Greek project. Its ultimate goal was the restoration of the Greek, or Byzantine Empire. Constantinople was to become its capital, and its ruler was the grandson of Catherine II, Pavlovich.
By the end of the 70s, the foreign policy of Catherine II returned the country to its former international prestige, which was further strengthened after Russia acted as an intermediary at the Teschen Congress between Prussia and Austria. In 1787, the Empress, accompanied by the Polish king and the Austrian monarch, accompanied by her courtiers and foreign diplomats, made a long journey to the Crimean peninsula. This grandiose event demonstrated the full military power of the Russian Empire.
Domestic politics
Most of the reforms and transformations that were carried out in Russia were as controversial as Catherine II herself. The years of her reign were marked by the maximum enslavement of the peasantry, as well as the deprivation of even the most minimal rights. It was under her that a decree appeared on the prohibition of filing a complaint against the arbitrariness of landlords. In addition, corruption flourished among the highest state apparatus and officials, and the empress herself served as an example for them, who generously presented both relatives and a large army of her admirers.
What was she like
The personal qualities of Catherine 2 were described by her in her own memoirs. In addition, research by historians, based on numerous documents, suggests that she was a subtle psychologist who was well versed in people. The proof of this is the fact that she selected only talented and bright people as her assistants. Therefore, her era was marked by the appearance of a whole cohort of brilliant commanders and statesmen, poets and writers, artists and musicians.
In dealing with subordinates, Catherine 2 was usually tactful, restrained and patient. According to her, she always carefully listened to her interlocutor, while catching every sensible thought, and then used it for good. Under her, in fact, not a single noisy resignation took place, she did not exile any of the nobles, and even more so did not execute. No wonder her reign is called the "golden age" of the heyday of the Russian nobility.
Catherine 2, whose biography and personality are full of contradictions, at the same time was quite conceited and greatly valued the power she had won. In order to keep her in her hands, she was willing to compromise even at the expense of her own convictions.
Personal life
Portraits of the Empress, painted in her youth, indicate that she had a rather pleasant appearance. Therefore, it is not surprising that the numerous amorous amusements of Catherine 2 entered history. In truth, she could well remarry, but in this case her title, position, and most importantly, the fullness of power, would be jeopardized.
According to the prevailing opinion of most historians, Catherine the Great changed about twenty lovers in her entire life. Very often she presented them with a variety of valuable gifts, generously distributed honors and titles, and all this so that they would be favorable to her.
Board results
It must be said that historians do not undertake to unambiguously evaluate all the events that took place in the Catherine era, since at that time despotism and enlightenment went side by side hand in hand and were inextricably linked. During the years of her reign, there was everything: the development of education, culture and science, the significant strengthening of Russian statehood in the international arena, the development of trade relations and diplomacy. But, as with any ruler, it was not without oppression of the people, who suffered numerous hardships. Such an internal policy could not but cause another popular unrest, which grew into a powerful and full-scale uprising led by Yemelyan Pugachev.
Conclusion
In the 1860s, an idea appeared: to erect a monument to Catherine II in St. Petersburg in honor of her 100th anniversary of her accession to the throne. Its construction lasted 11 years, and the opening took place in 1873 on Alexandria Square. This is the most famous monument to the Empress. During the years of Soviet power, 5 of its monuments were lost. After 2000, several monuments were opened both in Russia and abroad: 2 - in Ukraine and 1 - in Transnistria. In addition, in 2010, a statue appeared in Zerbst (Germany), but not to Empress Catherine 2, but to Sophia Frederick August, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst.
Portrait of Catherine II. F. S. Rokotov, 1763
Even during her lifetime, Catherine II was called the Great, and this honorary title was preserved for her in the official imperial historiography. The attitude of Russian and European society towards the most outstanding empress of the 18th century was, however, completely ambiguous. This is quite natural - in Catherine, as well as in the whole appearance of Catherine's Russia, incompatible features were combined: sin and virtue, greatness and meanness, subtlety of artistic taste and vulgarity, reasonable moderation of enlightened Europeanism and cruel Asian despotism. Empress Catherine II is one of the most striking phenomena of Russian history.
Portrait of Princess Sofia Augusta Friederike. A. R. Lischevskaya. 1742
Sophia Frederick Augustus of Anhalt-Zerbst April 21 (May 2), 1729 in the then German city of Stettin - the capital of Pomerania (Pomerania). Now the city is called Szczecin, among other territories, it was voluntarily transferred Soviet Union, following the results of the Second World War, Poland and is the capital of the West Pomeranian Voivodeship of Poland.
Stettin Castle, where the future empress was born
Father, Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst, came from the Zerbst-Dorneburg line of the House of Anhalt and was in the service of the Prussian king, was a regimental commander, commandant, then governor of the city of Stettin, where the future empress was born, ran for the Dukes of Courland, but unsuccessfully , finished his service as a Prussian field marshal.
Christian August of Anhalt-Zerbst - Prince of Anhalt-Dornburg, Prussian Field Marshal General (1742), father of Catherine II.
Mother - Johanna Elizabeth, from the Gottorp ruling house, was the cousin of the future Peter III. The family tree of Johann Elisabeth goes back to Christian I, King of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, the first Duke of Schleswig-Holstein and the founder of the Oldenburg dynasty.
Maternal uncle Adolf-Friedrich was in 1743 elected heir to the Swedish throne, which he entered in 1751 under the name of Adolf-Fredrik. Another uncle, Karl Eytinsky, according to the plan of Catherine I, was to become the husband of her daughter Elizabeth, but died on the eve of the wedding celebrations.
Johanna Elisabeth of Holstein-Gottorp - mother of Empress Catherine the Great, daughter of Prince Christian August of Lübeck, princess of the House of Holstein-Gottorp.
In the family of the Duke of Zerbst, Catherine received home education. She studied English, French and Italian, dances, music, the basics of history, geography, theology. She grew up a frisky, inquisitive, playful girl, she loved to flaunt her courage in front of the boys, with whom she easily played on the Stettin streets. Parents were unhappy with the "boyish" behavior of their daughter, but they were happy that Frederica took care of her younger sister Augusta.
Her mother called her Fike or Fikkhen German when she was a child. Figchen - comes from the name Frederica, that is, "little Frederica" Parents did not burden her with their upbringing. His father was diligently engaged in the service, and his mother, a quarrelsome and restless woman, traveled all over Europe from time to time in search of adventures on undercover affairs of Frederick the Great. The daughter, apparently, only thanked fate for the fact that her mother was often not at home, because in raising her children, John-Elizabeth adhered to the simplest rules and could easily slap a slap in the face. Home lessons were not in vain, our heroine learned to patiently endure insults and wait in the wings.
Princess Fike
Catherine owed her marriage to Empress Elizabeth, who, without further ado, decided to look for a bride in the depths of her own family. Sofya-Augusta was the second cousin of the groom, and Elizabeth considered this marriage to be her family affair. However, family relations did not bring happiness to Sophia-Augusta at the court of the Russian Empress.
In 1743, the Russian Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, while choosing a bride for her heir, Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Russian Emperor Peter III), remembered that on her deathbed her mother bequeathed her to become the wife of the Holstein prince, the brother of Johann Elizabeth.
Eytin Castle
Princess Fike, 1745, Antonio Pesce
Perhaps it was this circumstance that tipped the scales in Frederica's favor; earlier, Elizabeth had vigorously supported her uncle's election to the Swedish throne and had exchanged portraits with her mother. In 1744, the Zerbst princess, together with her mother, was invited to Russia to marry Peter Fedorovich. For the first time, she saw her future husband in the Eytinsky castle in 1739.
Catherine after her arrival in Russia, portrait by Louis Caravaque
Princess Fike by Pesce
Immediately after her arrival in Russia, she began to study the Russian language, history, Orthodoxy, Russian traditions, as she sought to get to know Russia as fully as possible, which she perceived as a new homeland. Among her teachers are the famous preacher Simon Todorsky (Orthodoxy teacher), the author of the first Russian grammar Vasily Adadurov (Russian language teacher) and choreographer Lange (dance teacher).
Writing Exercises in Calligraphy and French by Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbskaya
In an effort to learn Russian as quickly as possible, the future empress studied at night, sitting at an open window in the frosty air. She soon fell ill with pneumonia, and her condition was so severe that her mother offered to bring a Lutheran pastor. Sophia, however, refused and sent for Simon Todorsky. This circumstance added to her popularity at the Russian court. June 28 (July 9), 1744 Sophia Frederick Augusta converted from Lutheranism to Orthodoxy and received the name Ekaterina Alekseevna (the same name and patronymic as the mother of Elizabeth - Catherine I), and the next day was betrothed to the future emperor.
1744, by Grotta
Fike was a pretty girl, but she was not called a beauty. From a political point of view, she also did not have any special advantages - her family did not have any independent influence. In general, she was lucky in a big way - for the first, but not the last time. Fika had to do what in the language of the XVIII was called "enter the case", that is, to please the tsarina, the Grand Duke and gain confidence in the wayward St. Petersburg court. And the yard was difficult. Most of all, it resembled a theater where there was a permanent performance with a mass of participants circling in a sparkling round dance around the unsurpassed prima - Queen Elizabeth. The real business, as usual, was done behind the scenes.
1744, by Grotta
It was difficult to organically integrate into the ensemble of virtuosos of the court-political game, even more difficult to understand the cunning mechanics of the relationships that controlled the court action. Princess Johanna and her daughter were at first greeted with cordiality; Elizaveta Petrovna even burst into tears at the meeting, seeing in the face of Johanna Elizabeth features that resembled the deceased groom. That was the first and last success of the princess at the St. Petersburg court.
Soon the frivolous Johanna got involved in intrigues and was forever removed from Russia. The young princess Fike, as best she could, distanced herself from her mother and in every possible way servility to Elizabeth. But the main thing is that the Zerbst princess tried to become “her own” for the empress and the court as soon as possible.
Here is an excerpt from her memoirs: “I, who made it a rule to please the people with whom I had to live, assimilated their mode of action, their manner; I wanted to be Russian, so that Russians would love me". The appearance of Sophia with her mother in St. Petersburg was accompanied by political intrigue, in which her mother, Princess Zerbstskaya, was involved. She was a fan of King Frederick II of Prussia, and the latter decided to use her stay at the Russian imperial court to establish his influence on Russian foreign policy.
To do this, it was planned, through intrigue and influence on the Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, to remove Chancellor Bestuzhev, who pursued an anti-Prussian policy, from the affairs and replace him with another nobleman who sympathized with Prussia. However, Bestuzhev managed to intercept the letters of Princess Zerbst Frederick II and present them to Elizabeth Petrovna. After the latter found out about the “ugly role of the Prussian spy” that Sophia’s mother played at her court, she immediately changed her attitude towards her and disgraced her. However, this did not affect the position of Sophia herself, who did not take part in this intrigue
Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna with her husband Peter III Fedorovich
On August 21, 1745, at the age of sixteen, Catherine was married to Peter Fedorovich, who was 17 years old and who was her second cousin. For the first years of their life together, Peter was not at all interested in his wife, and there was no marital relationship between them. Ekaterina will write about this later:
I saw very well that the Grand Duke did not love me at all; two weeks after the wedding, he told me that he was in love with the girl Carr, the maid of honor of the Empress. He told Count Divier, his chamberlain, that there was no comparison between this girl and me. Divyer claimed otherwise, and he became angry with him; this scene took place almost in my presence, and I saw this quarrel. To tell the truth, I told myself that with this man I would certainly be very unhappy if I succumbed to the feeling of love for him, for which they paid so poorly, and that there would be something to die of jealousy without any benefit to anyone.
1747, by Grotta. in a hunting suit
So, out of pride, I tried to force myself not to be jealous of a person who does not love me, but in order not to be jealous of him, there was no other choice than not to love him. If he wanted to be loved, it would not be difficult for me: I was naturally inclined and accustomed to fulfill my duties, but for this I would need to have a husband with common sense, and mine did not have
Family relations with Peter III did not work out. Her seventeen-year-old husband devotedly devoted himself to playing soldiers and had little interest in his wife. At first, complete indifference prevailed in their relationship: there was not even hatred, but Catherine's adored aunt became the true tyrant of Catherine.
1745, with Peter, by Grotta
The aging Elizabeth kept her niece like a wild bird in a cage, seeing, apparently, subconsciously, in her a rival to her power. She did not allow Catherine to go out without asking for a walk, even go to the bathhouse, did not allow her to rearrange furniture and have ink and pens. In the palace, the wife of the heir was followed relentlessly, reporting to Elizabeth about every step of Catherine, peeping through the keyholes and printing out her letters to her parents.
True, sometimes the capricious Elizabeth became generous with rich gifts, but expressions of favor immediately alternated with rude reprimands, threatening even beatings. “Not a day passed,” Catherine wrote, “that they didn’t scold me and didn’t snitch on me.” After one of these obscene scenes, she succumbed to a terrible impulse: the maid who entered her found her with a large knife in her hand, which, fortunately, turned out to be so dull that it could not even overcome the corset.
Catherine II with her cousin Gustav III in Sweden (Stockholm, National Museum of Sweden)
It was a momentary breakdown. For the most part, Catherine had a natural optimism and knew how to restrain herself. She perfectly understood what her reward awaited, and endured everything for the sake of power. And she, in spite of everything, had no doubt that sooner or later there would be a holiday on her street. "Everything I did always tended towards this, and my whole life was a search for means to achieve this."
Ekaterina continues to educate herself. She reads books on history, philosophy, jurisprudence, the works of Voltaire, Montesquieu, Tacitus, Bayle, and a large amount of other literature. The main entertainments for her were hunting, horseback riding, dancing and masquerades. The absence of marital relations with the Grand Duke contributed to the appearance of Catherine's lovers. Meanwhile, Empress Elizabeth expressed dissatisfaction with the absence of children from the spouses.
1758, by Grotta
1762, by Frixen
The marriage triumph of Princess Fike turned into a real drama for her. For the family life of Peter and Catherine did not work out from the very beginning. They could get along well while they were a bride and groom - in fact, two children who found themselves in a foreign and incomprehensible country. But when they became spouses, they discovered many reasons for mutual dissatisfaction. Peter was distinguished by infantilism and insufficient education - to the early and well-trained Catherine, he seemed uncouth, hopeless half-wit.
Over time, the spouses also showed more significant differences in views and temperaments, affecting the sphere of politics. The Grand Duke was openly burdened by the order that had developed at the court of Elizabeth, he did not put the Russian Empire too high and did not hide his admiration for Frederick II of Prussia.
Works by Grotta
Catherine, who owed a lot to the Prussian king and internally agreed with him on many issues, considered her husband’s enthusiastic attitude towards a foreign monarch (far from being friendly towards the Russian state and the Russian sovereign) completely inappropriate. The heavy despotism of Empress Elizabeth, with her periodic attacks of irritability and suspicion, the Grand Duchess, unlike her husband, endured patiently, like bouts of bad weather, due to the climatic features of Russia.
But the worst thing is that the harmony of intimate relations has not been established between the spouses. Later, Catherine blamed Peter for everything - they say, he neglected marital duties. According to some sources, it was Catherine who showed coldness to her husband already in the first years of marriage. The situation for Catherine looked very tragic, because her main duty was to give offspring to the Romanov family.
1762, by Eriksen
Failing to fulfill it, she could lose everything she had achieved in Russia. Peter did not feel much better either, who during the several years of his stay near the capricious aunt managed to prove himself not in the best way and lost his former empress's goodwill. In the end, they overcame themselves and in the ninth year of marriage, in 1754 they created an offspring, Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich.
After that, the couple practically gave each other complete freedom. Even before the birth of Pavel, a handsome aristocrat Sergei Saltykov appeared near the Grand Duchess. Becoming the second man in Catherine's life, he was the first to ignite the fire of true sensuality in her, which then flared up brighter, warming and scorching numerous lovers. When Saltykov was tactfully removed from the court, Stanislav Ponyatovsky, a noble Polish gentry, took his place.
Stanislav II August Poniatowski - the last king of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1764-1795.
Their romance soon ceased to be a secret for others, and for Peter himself. Poniatowski, in accordance with his position at the British Embassy, became an active participant in the intrigues that Prussian and British diplomacy wove in St. Petersburg. Peter and Catherine were also embroiled in ups and downs dangerous game directed against the policy of Empress Elizabeth. When the case was revealed, Poniatowski was forced to hastily leave Russia.
Abandoned by the Polish handsome man, the Grand Duchess did not suffer long: in 1759, the guardsman Grigory Orlov, a military officer, a desperate brave man, a reveler and a breter, took possession of her heart. He was destined to play a decisive role in the coup that raised Catherine to the throne and saved her from her hateful husband. Orlov stayed near his beloved Empress for a decade and a half. Then the tastes of Catherine, who was already entering old age, began to change, the charm of Oryol's bodily strength and prowess melted away in the heat of passions of big politics, in which the gallant guardsman could not be a worthy partner.
Portrait of Prince Grigory Potemkin-Tauride.Lumpy, Johann (senior)
Then Catherine went through a whole series of heartfelt hobbies. And there was only one lover-companion, a real assistant in the affairs of the reign - Grigory Potemkin, the Most Serene Prince of Tauride. Potemkin remained in favor with Catherine until his death. The last favorite was the youth Zubov, who tried to play the role of an outstanding statesman and put forward absolutely fantastic projects for this, which, however, no one took seriously.
In the last years of the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna, the young Grand Duchess was quite clearly aware of her prospects. The key idea of this realization was expressed as early as 1756 in one of Catherine's letters: "I will reign or perish."
A foreigner by birth, she sincerely loved Russia and cared about the welfare of her subjects. Having taken the throne through a palace coup, the wife of Peter III tried to bring the best ideas of the European Enlightenment to life in Russian society. At the same time, Catherine opposed the beginning of the Great French Revolution (1789-1799), outraged by the execution of the French king Louis XVI Bourbon (January 21, 1793) and prejudging Russia's participation in the anti-French coalition of European states at the beginning of the 19th century.
Catherine II Alekseevna (nee Sophia Augusta Frederick, Princess of Anhalt-Zerbst) was born on May 2, 1729 in the German city of Stettin (modern territory of Poland), and died on November 17, 1796 in St. Petersburg.
The daughter of Prince Christian-August of Anhalt-Zerbst, who was in the Prussian service, and Princess Johanna-Elisabeth (nee Princess of Holstein-Gottorp) was related to the royal houses of Sweden, Prussia and England. She was educated at home, the course of which, in addition to dancing and foreign languages, also included the basics of history, geography and theology.
In 1744, together with her mother, she was invited to Russia by Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, and baptized according to Orthodox tradition under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna. Soon her engagement to Grand Duke Peter Fedorovich (the future Emperor Peter III) was announced, and in 1745 they were married.
Catherine understood that the court loved Elizabeth, did not accept many of the oddities of the heir to the throne, and, perhaps, after the death of Elizabeth, it was she who, with the support of the court, would ascend the Russian throne. Catherine studied the works of the French Enlightenment, as well as jurisprudence, which had a significant impact on her worldview. In addition, she made as much effort as possible to study and, perhaps, understand the history and traditions of the Russian state. Because of her desire to know everything Russian, Catherine won the love of not only the court, but the whole of St. Petersburg.
After the death of Elizaveta Petrovna, Catherine's relationship with her husband, never characterized by warmth and understanding, continued to deteriorate, taking on clearly hostile forms. Fearing arrest, Catherine, with the support of the Orlov brothers, N.I. Panin, K.G. Razumovsky, E.R. Dashkova on the night of June 28, 1762, when the emperor was in Oranienbaum, made a palace coup. Peter III was exiled to Ropsha, where he soon died under mysterious circumstances.
Starting her reign, Catherine tried to implement the ideas of the Enlightenment and arrange the state in accordance with the ideals of this most powerful European intellectual movement. Almost from the first days of her reign, she has been actively involved in public affairs, proposing reforms that are significant for society. On her initiative, in 1763, the Senate was reformed, which significantly increased the efficiency of its work. Wishing to strengthen the dependence of the church on the state, and to provide additional land resources to the nobility, who supported the policy of reforming society, Catherine secularized church lands (1754). The unification of the administration of the territories of the Russian Empire began, and the hetmanship in Ukraine was abolished.
The champion of the Enlightenment, Catherine, creates a number of new educational institutions, including for women (Smolny Institute, Catherine's School).
In 1767, the empress convened a commission, which included representatives of all segments of the population, including peasants (except serfs), to draw up a new code - a set of laws. In order to guide the work of the Legislative Commission, Catherine wrote the "Instruction", the text of which was based on the writings of enlightenment authors. This document, in fact, was the liberal program of her reign.
After the end of the Russian-Turkish war of 1768-1774. and the suppression of the uprising under the leadership of Emelyan Pugachev, a new stage of Catherine's reforms began, when the empress independently developed the most important legislative acts and, using the unlimited power of her power, put them into practice.
In 1775, a manifesto was issued allowing the free opening of any industrial enterprises. In the same year, the provincial reform was carried out, which introduced a new administrative-territorial division of the country, which remained until 1917. In 1785, Catherine issued letters of commendation to the nobility and cities.
In the foreign policy arena, Catherine II continued to pursue an offensive policy in all directions - northern, western and southern. The results of foreign policy can be called the strengthening of Russia's influence on European affairs, the three sections of the Commonwealth, the strengthening of positions in the Baltic states, the annexation of Crimea, Georgia, and participation in countering the forces of revolutionary France.
The contribution of Catherine II to Russian history is so significant that many works of our culture keep her memory.
The significance of Catherine II for Russian history is so important that she can be compared with Peter I, nicknamed the Great. The accession of new lands to the empire, the expansion of the strategic and economic capabilities of the state, impressive military victories achieved by skill, but not by numbers at sea and on land, new cities that have become outposts of Russia in the south - this is just a short and incomplete list of the achievements of this outstanding ruler. But it is enough to understand why Catherine 2 was called the Great.
Decisiveness, manifested in the most severe moments, the ability to take risks and even to commit a crime, if necessary, to achieve a serious goal - these qualities, turned to the benefit of Russia, were part of her character.
The biography of Catherine the Great began in 1729. The family from which Frederica came was noble, but not rich. And Fike, as she was called at home, would have been one of the many European noblewomen whose fates have sunk into oblivion due to their mediocrity, if not in Russia. In 1741, she came to power and she was the aunt of Peter Holstein, the future Emperor Peter III, the grandson of the betrothed Frederick.
They were destined to get married, although they did not feel sympathy for each other. Neither the groom nor the bride shone with external beauty.
It was acquired by the future empress after the rite of Orthodox baptism. The German Frederika not only changed her religious confession, she sincerely wanted to become Russian, and she succeeded. She learned the language to perfection, although until her last days she spoke with a slight accent.
There are several versions of the answer to the question: "Why was Catherine 2 called the Great even when she did not fully prove herself as a statesman?"
Unsuccessful family life, especially its intimate side, forced both spouses to seek comfort on the side. The aristocrat Saltykov, then the gentry Poniatowski, became Catherine's lovers with the tacit permission of her husband, who granted his wife freedom, without depriving her, however, of herself. Then it was the turn of Orlov, a brave and daring man.
In 1761, Empress Elizabeth died, and the question arose of who would rule Russia. Peter III was by no means that infantile and narrow-minded teenage man, as he was described in numerous works of art. Having mastered the science of government, he could well be king, at least in such a calm country as the empire was in the Elizabethan era. However, one of the reasons why Catherine 2 was called the Great was precisely that she was not satisfied with the situation in which everything was going according to the thumb. An idea of a conspiracy ripened in her head, as a result of which Peter III abdicated the throne, and was later killed.
The iron grip of the empress allowed her to suppress the Pugachev revolt, win the war with Turkey, resolve the Polish issue, conclude foreign policy alliances beneficial for the country and deal with enemies.
The Golden Age is the period when Catherine the Great ruled Russia. The biography of the individual and the history of the country are intertwined and form a single whole.
The expansion of the empire's borders to the south, the accession to it of fertile lands and harbors favorable for the creation of ports ensured foreign trade turnover and food abundance. The victory of Ushakov's squadron in the Chesme Bay, the capture of the Crimean Peninsula, Bessarabia, the defeat of the Turks at Rymnik, the foundation of such cities as Odessa, Kherson, Nikolaev, Ovidiopol and other outposts of Russia on the southern borders - all these facts eloquently explain why Catherine 2 was called the Great.
Doctor of Historical Sciences M. RAKHMATULLIN.
During the long decades of the Soviet era, the history of the reign of Catherine II was presented with a clear bias, and the image of the Empress herself was deliberately distorted. From the pages of a few publications, a cunning and conceited German princess appears, who treacherously seized the Russian throne and is most concerned with satisfying her sensual desires. Such judgments are based either on a frankly politicized motive, or purely emotional memories of her contemporaries, or, finally, the tendentious intent of her enemies (especially from among foreign opponents), who tried to discredit the empress's tough and consistent upholding of Russia's national interests. But Voltaire, in one of his letters to Catherine II, called her "Northern Babylon", likening her to a heroine Greek mythology, whose name is associated with the creation of one of the seven wonders of the world - hanging gardens. Thus, the great philosopher expressed his admiration for the activities of the Empress in the transformation of Russia, her wise rule. In the proposed essay, an attempt was made to impartially tell about the affairs and personality of Catherine II. "I did my job pretty well"
Crowned Catherine II in all the splendor of her coronation attire. The coronation traditionally took place in Moscow on September 22, 1762.
Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, who reigned from 1741 to 1761. Portrait of the middle of the XVIII century.
Peter I married his eldest daughter Tsesarevna Anna Petrovna to the Duke of Holstein Karl-Friedrich. Their son became the heir to the Russian throne, Peter Fedorovich.
Catherine II's mother, Johanna-Elizabeth of Anhalt-Zerbst, who secretly tried to intrigue in favor of the Prussian king, secretly from Russia.
The Prussian King Frederick II, whom the young Russian heir tried to imitate in everything.
Science and life // Illustrations
Grand Duchess Ekaterina Alekseevna and Grand Duke Pyotr Fedorovich. Their marriage turned out to be extremely unsuccessful.
Count Grigory Orlov is one of the active organizers and executors of the palace coup that elevated Catherine to the throne.
The most ardent part in the coup of June 1762 was taken by the still very young Princess Ekaterina Romanovna Dashkova.
Family portrait of the royal couple, made shortly after the accession to the throne of Peter III. Next to his parents is the young heir Pavel in oriental costume.
The Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, where dignitaries and nobles took the oath to Empress Catherine II.
The future Russian Empress Catherine II Alekseevna, nee Sophia Frederick Augusta, Princess of Anhaltzerbst, was born on April 21 (May 2), 1729 in Stettin (Prussia), which was provincial at that time. Her father, the unremarkable Prince Christian-August, made a good career by devoted service to the Prussian king: regiment commander, commandant of Stettin, governor. In 1727 (he was then 42 years old) he married the 16-year-old Holstein-Gottorp princess Johanna-Elisabeth.
The somewhat eccentric princess, who had an irrepressible addiction to entertainment and short trips to her numerous and, unlike her, rich relatives, put family concerns in the first place. Among the five children, the first-born daughter Fikkhen (that was the name of all the family Sophia Frederic) was not her favorite - they were waiting for a son. “My birth was not particularly joyfully welcomed,” Catherine later wrote in her Notes. The power-hungry and strict parent, out of a desire to "knock out her pride," often rewarded her daughter with slaps in the face for innocent childish pranks and for unchildish stubbornness of character. Little Fikkhen found comfort in a good-natured father. Constantly employed in the service and practically not interfering in the upbringing of children, he nevertheless became for them an example of conscientious service in the state field. “I have never met a more honest person, both in terms of principles and in relation to actions,” Catherine will say about her father at a time when she already knew people well.
Lack of material resources prevented parents from hiring expensive, experienced teachers and governesses. And here fate generously smiled on Sophia Frederica. After the change of several careless governesses, the French emigrant Elisabeth Kardel (nicknamed Babet) became her good mentor. As Catherine II later wrote about her, she "knew almost everything, having learned nothing; she knew all comedies and tragedies like the back of her hand and was very funny." The heartfelt response of the pupil draws Babet "an example of virtue and prudence - she had a naturally elevated soul, a developed mind, an excellent heart; she was patient, meek, cheerful, fair, constant."
Perhaps the main merit of the clever Kardel, who had an exceptionally balanced character, can be called the fact that she attracted the stubborn and secretive at first (the fruits of her previous upbringing) Fikkhen to reading, in which the capricious and wayward princess found true pleasure. A natural consequence of this passion is the soon-to-be developed interest of a girl developed beyond her years in serious works of a philosophical content. It is no coincidence that already in 1744 one of the enlightened friends of the family, the Swedish Count Gyllenborg, jokingly, but not without reason, called Fikchen "a fifteen-year-old philosopher." It is curious that Catherine II herself admitted that the acquisition of "intelligence and virtues" was greatly facilitated by the conviction inspired by her mother, "as if I were completely ugly," which kept the princess from empty social entertainment. Meanwhile, one of her contemporaries recalls: “She was perfectly built, from infancy she was distinguished by a noble posture and was taller than her years. Her facial expression was not beautiful, but very pleasant, and her open look and kind smile made her whole figure very attractive.”
However, the further fate of Sophia (as well as many later German princesses) was determined not by her personal merits, but by the dynastic situation in Russia. The childless Empress Elizaveta Petrovna, immediately after her accession, began to look for an heir worthy of the Russian throne. The choice fell on the only direct successor of the family of Peter the Great, his grandson - Karl Peter Ulrich. The son of the eldest daughter of Peter I Anna and the Duke of Holstein-Gottorp, Karl Friedrich, was left an orphan at the age of 11. The upbringing of the prince was carried out by pedantic German teachers, led by the pathologically cruel Chamber Marshal Count Otto von Brummer. The ducal offspring, frail from birth, was sometimes kept half-starved, and for any offense they were forced to kneel on peas for hours, often and painfully flogged. “I order you to be whipped so,” Brummer shouted, “that the dogs will lick the blood.” The boy found an outlet in his passion for music, addicted to the pathetically sounding violin. His other passion was the game of tin soldiers.
The humiliations to which he was subjected from day to day gave their results: the prince, as contemporaries note, became "hot-tempered, false, loved to brag, learned to lie." He grew up a cowardly, secretive, capricious beyond measure and thought a lot about himself. Here is a laconic portrait of Peter Ulrich, drawn by our brilliant historian V. O. Klyuchevsky: “His way of thinking and acting gave the impression of something surprisingly unthought-out and unfinished. He looked at serious things with a childish look, and treated children’s undertakings with the seriousness of a mature husband. He was like a child who imagined himself to be an adult; in fact, he was an adult who forever remained a child.
Such a "worthy" heir to the Russian throne in January 1742 was hastily (so that he would not be intercepted by the Swedes, whose king he could also become by his pedigree) was taken to St. Petersburg. In November of the same year, against his will, the prince was converted to Orthodoxy and named Peter Fedorovich. But in his heart he always remained a devout German Lutheran, who did not show any desire to master the language of his new homeland tolerably to any extent. In addition, the heir was not lucky with his studies and education in St. Petersburg either. His main mentor, Academician Yakov Shtelin, completely lacked any pedagogical talents, and he, seeing the amazing inability and indifference of the student, preferred to cater to the constant whims of the underage, and not teach him properly to the mind.
Meanwhile, 14-year-old Pyotr Fedorovich has already found a bride. What was the determining factor in the choice of Princess Sophia by the Russian court? The Saxon resident Petzold wrote about this: being, although "from a noble, but such a small family," she would be an obedient wife without any pretense of participating in big politics. At the same time, Elizabeth Petrovna's elegiac memories of her failed marriage to Sophia's mother's older brother, Karl August (shortly before the wedding, he died of smallpox), and the portraits of the pretty princess delivered to the empress, who even then everyone "liked at first sight" (so Catherine II writes in her Notes without false modesty).
At the end of 1743, Princess Sophia was invited (with Russian money) to Petersburg, where she arrived accompanied by her mother in February next year. From there they went to Moscow, where the royal court was located at that time, and on the eve of the birthday (February 9) of Peter Fedorovich, the pretty and dressed up (for the same money) bride appeared before the empress and the grand duke. J. Shtelin writes about the sincere delight of Elizabeth Petrovna at the sight of Sophia. And the mature beauty, stature and greatness of the Russian Tsaritsa made an indelible impression on the young provincial princess. As if they liked each other and betrothed. In any case, the mother of the future bride wrote to her husband that "the Grand Duke loves her." Fikkhen herself assessed more and more soberly: “To tell the truth, I liked the Russian crown more than him (the groom. - M. R.) person".
Indeed, the idyll, if it arose at first, did not last long. Further communication between the Grand Duke and the Princess showed a complete dissimilarity in both characters and interests, and outwardly they were strikingly different from each other: the lanky, narrow-shouldered and frail groom lost even more against the background of an unusually attractive bride. When the Grand Duke suffered smallpox, his face was so disfigured by fresh scars that Sophia, seeing the heir, could not restrain herself and was frankly horrified. However, the main thing was different: the amazing infantilism of Pyotr Fedorovich was opposed by the active, purposeful, ambitious nature of the self-aware Princess Sophia Frederica, named in Russia in honor of the mother of Empress Elizabeth Catherine (Alekseevna). This happened with her adoption of Orthodoxy on June 28, 1744. The Empress made noble gifts to the newly converted - a diamond cufflink and a necklace worth 150 thousand rubles. The next day, the official betrothal took place, bringing Catherine the titles of Grand Duchess and Imperial Highness.
Assessing later the situation that arose in the spring of 1744, when Empress Elizabeth, having learned about the frivolous attempts of Sophia’s mother, Princess Johanna-Elizabeth, who was prone to intrigues, to act (secretly from the Russian court) in the interests of the Prussian King Frederick II, almost sent her and her daughter back , "to his home" (which the bridegroom, as the bride sensitively caught, would probably be glad), Catherine expressed her feelings as follows: "He was almost indifferent to me, but the Russian crown was not indifferent to me."
On August 21, 1745, the wedding ceremonies began, lasting ten days. Lush balls, masquerades, fireworks, a sea of wine and mountains of treats for the common people on St. Petersburg's Admiralteiskaya Square exceeded all expectations. However, the family life of the newlyweds began with disappointments. As Catherine herself writes, her husband, who had had a hearty supper that evening, "lay down beside me, dozed off and slept safely until morning." And so it went on night after night, month after month, year after year. Pyotr Fedorovich, as before the wedding, selflessly played with dolls, trained (or rather, tortured) a pack of his dogs, arranged daily reviews of an amusing company of court cavaliers of his own age, and at night with passion taught his wife "gun exercise", bringing her to complete exhaustion. It was then that he first discovered an excessive addiction to wine and tobacco.
It is not surprising that Catherine began to experience a physical disgust for her nominal husband, finding solace in reading a wide variety of serious books on the subject and in horseback riding (it used to be that she spent up to 13 hours a day on horseback). A strong influence on the formation of her personality, as she recalled, had the famous "Annals" of Tacitus, and latest work French educator Charles Louis Montesquieu "On the Spirit of the Laws" became her reference book. She was absorbed in the study of the works of French encyclopedists and already at that time intellectually outgrew everyone around her.
Meanwhile, the aging Empress Elizaveta Petrovna was waiting for the heir and blamed Catherine for the fact that he did not appear. In the end, the Empress, at the prompting of trusted persons, arranged a medical examination of the married couple, the results of which we learn from the reports of foreign diplomats: "The Grand Duke was unable to have children from an obstacle removed from the Eastern peoples by circumcision, but which he considered incurable." The news of this plunged Elizabeth Petrovna into shock. "Amazed by this news, like a thunderbolt," writes one of the eyewitnesses, "Elizabeth seemed numb, could not utter a word for a long time, and finally began to sob."
However, tears did not prevent the empress from agreeing to an immediate operation, and in case of her failure, she ordered to find a suitable "cavalier" for the role of the father of the unborn child. They became the "handsome Serge", 26-year-old chamberlain Sergei Vasilyevich Saltykov. After two miscarriages (in 1752 and 1753), on September 20, 1754, Catherine gave birth to the heir to the throne, named Pavel Petrovich. True, evil tongues at the court almost said aloud that the child should have been called Sergeevich. Pyotr Fedorovich, who had successfully got rid of the illness by that time, also doubted his paternity: “God knows where my wife gets her pregnancy from, I don’t really know if this is my child and should I take it personally?”
Time, meanwhile, showed the unfounded suspicions. Pavel inherited not only the specific features of the appearance of Pyotr Fedorovich, but, more importantly, the features of his character - including mental imbalance, irritability, a tendency to unpredictable actions and an irrepressible love for the senseless drill of soldiers.
Immediately after birth, the heir was excommunicated from his mother and placed under the care of nannies, and Sergei Saltykov was sent from Catherine in love with him to Sweden with an invented diplomatic mission. As for the grand ducal couple, Elizabeth Petrovna, having received the long-awaited heir, lost her former interest in her. With her nephew, because of his obnoxious antics * and foolish antics, she could not stay "even a quarter of an hour, so as not to feel disgust, anger or grief." For example, he drilled holes in the wall of the room where the aunt-empress received her favorite Alexei Razumovsky, and not only watched what was happening there, but also invited "friends" from his entourage to look through the peephole. One can imagine the strength of the anger of Elizabeth Petrovna, who learned about the trick. Aunt Empress from now on in her hearts often calls him either a fool, or a freak, or even a "cursed nephew." In such a situation, Ekaterina Alekseevna, who provided the heir to the throne, could calmly reflect on her future fate.
On August 30, 1756, the twenty-year-old Grand Duchess informs the English ambassador to Russia, Sir Charles Herbert Williams, with whom she was in secret correspondence, that she decided to "die or reign." The vital attitudes of the young Catherine in Russia are simple: to please the Grand Duke, to please the Empress, to please the people. Recalling this time, she wrote: “Truly, I did not neglect anything in order to achieve this: obsequiousness, humility, respect, desire to please, desire to do what is right, sincere affection - everything on my part was constantly used to that from 1744 to 1761. I confess that when I lost hope of success in the first paragraph, I redoubled my efforts to fulfill the last two, it seemed to me that more than once I had time in the second, and the third succeeded me in its entirety, without any limitation of any time, and, therefore, I think I have fulfilled my task quite well."
The methods by which Ekaterina obtained the “power of attorney of the Russians” did not contain anything original and, in their simplicity, corresponded in the best possible way to the mental mood and the level of enlightenment of the St. Petersburg high society. Let's listen to her herself: "Attribute this to a deep mind and a long study of my position. Not at all! I owe this to Russian old women<...>And in solemn meetings, and at simple gatherings and parties, I approached the old women, sat down beside them, asked about their health, advised them what remedies to use in case of illness, patiently listened to their endless stories about their young years, about the current boredom, about the windiness of young people; she herself asked their advice in various matters and then sincerely thanked them. I knew the names of their pugs, lapdogs, parrots, fools; knew when which of these ladies had a birthday. On this day, my valet came to her, congratulated her on my behalf and brought flowers and fruits from the Oranienbaum greenhouses. In less than two years, the most ardent praise of my mind and heart was heard from all sides and spread throughout Russia. In the simplest and most innocent way, I made myself a loud glory, and when it came to taking the Russian throne, a significant majority ended up on my side.
On December 25, 1761, after a long illness, Empress Elizabeth Petrovna passed away. Senator Trubetskoy, who announced this long-awaited news, immediately proclaimed the accession to the throne of Emperor Peter III. As the remarkable historian S. M. Solovyov writes, “the answer was sobs and groans for the whole palace<...>The majority greeted the new reign gloomily: they knew the character of the new sovereign and did not expect anything good from him. "Ekaterina, if she had the intention, as she herself recalls," to save the state from that death, the danger of which was forced to foresee all the moral and physical qualities of this sovereign " , then, being at that time in the fifth month of pregnancy, she practically could not actively intervene in the course of events.
Perhaps this was for the best for her - for six months of his reign, Peter III managed to turn the capital's society and the nobility as a whole against himself to such an extent that he practically opened the road to power for his wife. Moreover, the attitude towards him did not change either the abolition of the hated Secret Chancellery, which caused universal rejoicing, with its dungeons filled with prisoners at the sole infamous cry: "The sovereign's word and deed!" mandatory public service and giving them the freedom to choose their place of residence, occupation and the right to travel abroad. The last act aroused such a fit of enthusiasm among the nobility that the Senate even set out to erect a monument of pure gold to the benefactor tsar. However, the euphoria did not last long - everything was outweighed by the extremely unpopular actions of the emperor in society, which greatly offended the national dignity of the Russian people.
The adoration of the Prussian king Frederick II, deliberately advertised by Peter III, was subjected to angry condemnation. He loudly proclaimed himself his vassal, for which he received the nickname "Frederick's monkey" among the people. The degree of public discontent jumped especially sharply when Peter III made peace with Prussia and returned to her without any compensation the lands conquered by the blood of Russian soldiers. This step practically nullified all the successes of the Seven Years' War for Russia.
Peter III managed to turn the clergy against himself, because, according to his decree of March 21, 1762, they began to hastily implement the decision made under Elizabeth Petrovna on the secularization of church lands: the treasury, devastated by many years of war, demanded replenishment. Moreover, the new tsar threatened to deprive the clergy of their customary lush vestments, replacing them with black pastoral cassocks, and to shave off the beards of the priests.
Did not add glory to the new emperor and addiction to wine. It did not go unnoticed how extremely cynical he behaved during the days of mournful farewell to the late empress, allowing obscene antics, jokes, loud laughter at her coffin ... According to contemporaries, Peter III did not have "a more cruel enemy" these days than himself, because he neglects nothing that might harm him." This is confirmed by Catherine: her husband "in the whole empire had no more fierce enemy than himself." As you can see, Peter III thoroughly prepared the ground for a coup.
It is difficult to say exactly when the concrete outlines of the conspiracy appeared. With a high degree of probability, its occurrence can be attributed to April 1762, when Catherine, after giving birth, received a physical opportunity for real action. The final decision on the conspiracy, apparently, was approved after a family scandal that happened in early June. At one of the gala dinners, Peter III, in the presence of foreign ambassadors and about 500 guests, publicly called his wife a fool several times in a row. This was followed by an order to the adjutant to arrest his wife. And only the persistent persuasion of Prince George Ludwig of Holstein (he was the uncle of the imperial couple) extinguished the conflict. But they did not change the intention of Peter III to free himself from his wife by any means and to fulfill his long-standing desire - to marry the favorite, Elizabeth Romanovna Vorontsova. According to the reviews of persons close to Peter, she "cursed like a soldier, mowed, smelled bad and spat when talking." Pocked, fat, with an exorbitant bust, she was just the type of woman that Pyotr Fyodorovich liked, during drinking parties he loudly called his girlfriend none other than "Romanova." Catherine, on the other hand, was threatened with inevitable tonsure as a nun.
There was no time left to organize a classic conspiracy with lengthy preparation and thinking through all the details. Everything was decided according to the situation, almost at the level of improvisation, however, compensated by the decisive actions of Ekaterina Alekseevna's supporters. Among them was her secret admirer, the Ukrainian hetman K. G. Razumovsky, at the same time the commander of the Izmailovsky regiment, a favorite of the guards. Ober-Procurator A. I. Glebov, Feldzeugmeister General A. N. Vilboa, Police Director Baron N. A. Korf, and General-in-Chief M. N., who were close to Peter III, also showed obvious sympathy for her. The 18-year-old Princess E. R. Dashkova, unusually energetic and girlishly loyal to Catherine, was also involved in the preparation of the coup (the favorite of Peter III was her sister), who had extensive connections in society due to her proximity to N. I. Panin and the fact that Chancellor M. I. Vorontsov was her own uncle.
It was through the sister of the favorite, who did not arouse any suspicion, that the officers of the Preobrazhensky Regiment - P. B. Passek, S. A. Bredikhin, brothers Alexander and Nikolai Roslavlevs, were attracted to participate in the coup. Through other reliable channels, contacts were established with other energetic young guard officers. All of them paved Catherine a relatively easy path to the throne. Among them, the most active and active - "standing out from the crowd of comrades with beauty, strength, youthfulness, sociability" 27-year-old Grigory Grigoryevich Orlov (who had long been in a love affair with Catherine - the boy born to her in April 1762 was their son Alexei). Ekaterina's favorite was supported in everything by his two equally valiant guard brothers - Alexei and Fedor. It was the three Orlov brothers who were actually the mainspring of the conspiracy.
In the Horse Guards "everything was directed prudently, boldly and actively" the future favorite of Catherine II, 22-year-old non-commissioned officer G. A. Potemkin and his peers F. A. Khitrovo. By the end of June, according to Catherine, her "accomplices" in the guard were up to 40 officers and about 10 thousand privates. One of the main inspirers of the conspiracy was the tutor of Tsarevich Pavel N. I. Panin. True, he pursued goals different from those of Catherine: the removal of Pyotr Fedorovich from power and the establishment of a regency under his pupil, the infant Tsar Pavel Petrovich. Catherine knows about this, and although such a plan is absolutely unacceptable for her, she, not wanting a fragmentation of forces, when talking with Panin, is limited to a non-committal phrase: "I'd rather be a mother than the wife of a ruler."
The case hastened the fall of Peter III: a reckless decision to start a war with Denmark (with a completely empty treasury) and command the troops himself, although the emperor's inability to military affairs was a byword. His interests here were limited to a love of colorful uniforms, endless drill and the assimilation of rough soldierly manners, which he considered a sign of masculinity. Even the urgent advice of his idol Frederick II - before the coronation not to go to the theater of operations - had no effect on Peter. And now the guards, spoiled under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna by a free capital life, and now, at the whim of the tsar, dressed up in hated Prussian-style uniforms, receive an order to urgently prepare for a campaign that did not at all meet the interests of Russia.
The immediate signal for the beginning of the actions of the conspirators was the accidental arrest on the evening of June 27 of one of the conspirators - Captain Passek. The danger was great. On the night of June 28, Alexei Orlov and Guards Lieutenant Vasily Bibikov hurriedly galloped to Peterhof, where Catherine was. The brothers Grigory and Fyodor, who remained in St. Petersburg, prepared everything for a proper "royal" meeting of her in the capital. At six o'clock in the morning on June 28, Alexei Orlov woke Ekaterina with the words: "It's time to get up: everything is ready for your proclamation." "Like what?" - Ekaterina says awake. "Passek has been arrested," was A. Orlov's reply.
And now the hesitation is discarded, Catherine with the chamber-maid of honor sit in the carriage in which Orlov arrived. V. I. Bibikov and the footman Shkurin are arranged on the backs, Alexei Orlov is on the goats next to the coachman. Grigory Orlov meets them about five miles from the capital. Ekaterina moves into his carriage with fresh horses. In front of the barracks of the Izmailovsky Regiment, the guards enthusiastically take the oath to the new empress. Then the carriage with Catherine and a crowd of soldiers, led by a priest with a cross, are sent to the Semenovsky regiment, which greeted Catherine with a thunderous "Hurrah!" Accompanied by troops, she goes to the Kazan Cathedral, where a prayer service immediately begins and at litanies "the autocratic Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna and the heir to Grand Duke Pavel Petrovich were proclaimed." From the cathedral, Catherine, already empress, goes to the Winter Palace. Here, a little late and terribly upset by this, the guardsmen of the Preobrazhensky regiment joined the two regiments of the guard. By noon, the army units also pulled up.
Meanwhile, members of the Senate and the Synod, and other high officials of the state, are already crowding in the Winter Palace. Without any delay, they took the oath to the Empress according to the text hastily drawn up by the future Secretary of State of Catherine II, G. N. Teplov. The Manifesto on the accession to the throne of Catherine "at the request of all our subjects" was also published. Residents of the northern capital rejoice, the river flows at public expense wine from the cellars of private wine merchants. Excited by the drunk, the common people rejoice heartily and wait for good deeds from the new queen. But she is not up to them yet. Under the exclamations of "Hurrah!" canceled Danish campaign. To attract the fleet to his side, a reliable person was sent to Kronstadt - Admiral I. L. Talyzin. Decrees on the change of power were prudently sent to the part of the Russian army stationed in Pomerania.
And what about Peter III? Did he suspect the threat of a coup and what happened in his inner circle on the ill-fated day of June 28? The surviving documentary evidence clearly shows that he did not even think about the possibility of a coup, confident in the love of his subjects. Hence his disregard for the earlier, albeit vague, warnings.
After spending a late dinner the day before, Peter arrives at Peterhof by noon on June 28 to celebrate his upcoming name day. And he discovers that Catherine is not in Monplaisir - she unexpectedly left for St. Petersburg. Messengers were urgently sent to the city - N. Yu. Trubetskoy and A. I. Shuvalov (one - Colonel of the Semenovsky, the other - of the Preobrazhensky Regiment). However, neither one nor the other returned, swearing allegiance to Catherine without hesitation. But the disappearance of the messengers did not give decisiveness to Peter, who from the very beginning was morally crushed by the complete, in his opinion, hopelessness of the situation. Finally, a decision was made to move to Kronstadt: according to the report of the commandant of the fortress, P. A. Devier, they were supposedly ready to receive the emperor. But while Peter and his people sailed to Kronstadt, Talyzin had already managed to arrive there and, to the delight of the garrison, took everyone to the oath of allegiance to Empress Catherine II. Therefore, the flotilla of the deposed emperor (one galley and one yacht), which approached the fortress at the first hour of the night, was forced to turn back to Oranienbaum. Peter did not accept the advice of the elderly Count B. Kh. Munnich, returned from exile, to act "royally", without delaying an hour, go to the troops in Revel and move with them to Petersburg.
Meanwhile, Catherine once again demonstrates her determination by ordering up to 14 thousand troops with artillery to be pulled to Peterhof. The task of the conspirators who seized the throne is complex and at the same time simple: to achieve the "voluntary" decent abdication of Peter from the throne. And on June 29, General M. L. Izmailov delivers to Catherine a pitiful message from Peter III asking for forgiveness and renouncing his rights to the throne. He also expressed his readiness (if allowed), together with E. R. Vorontsova, adjutant A. V. Gudovich, a violin and a beloved pug, to go to live in Holstein, if only he was allocated a boarding house sufficient for a comfortable existence. They demanded from Peter "a written and handwritten certificate" of renunciation of the throne "voluntarily and naturally." Peter agreed to everything and dutifully declared in writing "solemnly to the whole world": "I renounce the government of the Russian state for the rest of my life."
By noon, Peter was taken under arrest, taken to Peterhof, and then transferred to Ropsha, a small country palace 27 miles from St. Petersburg. Here he was put "under a strong guard" allegedly until the premises in Shlisselburg were ready. Aleksey Orlov was appointed the main guard. So, the whole coup, which did not shed a single drop of blood, took less than two days - June 28 and 29. Frederick II later, in a conversation with the French envoy in St. Petersburg, Count L.-F. Segurome gave the following review of the events in Russia: "The lack of courage in Peter III ruined him: he allowed himself to be dethroned like a child sent to sleep".
In the current situation, the physical elimination of Peter was the most correct and hassle-free solution to the problem. As ordered, that's exactly what happened. On the seventh day after the coup, under circumstances that have not yet been fully elucidated, Peter III was put to death. The people were officially announced that Pyotr Fedorovich died of hemorrhoidal colic, which happened "by the will of divine Providence."
Naturally, contemporaries, as later historians, were keenly interested in the question of Catherine's involvement in this tragedy. There are different opinions on this matter, but they are all based on conjectures and assumptions, and there are simply no facts that incriminate Catherine in this crime. Apparently, the French envoy Beranger was right when, in the hot pursuit of events, he wrote: “I do not suspect in this princess such a terrible soul as to think that she participated in the death of the king, but since the deepest secret will probably always be hidden from general information real author of this terrible murder, suspicion and infamy will remain on the empress.
A. I. Herzen spoke more definitely: "It is very likely that Catherine did not give orders to kill Peter III. We know from Shakespeare how these orders are given - with a look, a hint, silence." It is important to note here that all participants in the "accidental" (as A. Orlov explained in his penitential note to the Empress) murder of the deposed emperor not only did not suffer any punishment, but were later superbly awarded with money and serf souls. Thus, Catherine, voluntarily or involuntarily, took this grave sin upon herself. Perhaps that is why the empress showed no less mercy towards her recent enemies: practically none of them was not only sent into exile, according to the established Russian tradition, but was not punished at all. Even Petr's master, Elizaveta Vorontsova, was only quietly placed in her father's house. Moreover, later Catherine II became the godmother of her first child. Truly, generosity and forgivingness are the true weapons of the strong, always bringing them glory and loyal admirers.
On July 6, 1762, the Manifesto signed by Catherine on her accession to the throne was announced in the Senate. On September 22, a solemn coronation took place in Moscow, which met her coolly. Thus began the 34-year reign of Catherine II.
Starting to characterize the long reign of Catherine II and her personality, let's pay attention to one paradoxical fact: the illegality of Catherine's accession to the throne had its undoubted advantages, especially in the first years of her reign, when she "had to work hard, great services and donations to atone for what what legitimate kings have without difficulty. This very necessity was partly the spring of her great and brilliant deeds. Not only the well-known writer and memoirist N. I. Grech, who owns the above judgment, thought so. In this case, he only reflected the opinion of the educated part of society. V. O. Klyuchevsky, speaking about the tasks facing Catherine, who took, and did not receive power by law, and noting the extreme complexity of the situation in Russia after the coup, emphasized the same point: "Power seized always has the character of a bill, according to which waiting for payment, and according to the mood of Russian society, Catherine had to justify various and discordant expectations. Looking ahead, let's say that this bill was repaid by her on time.
In the historical literature, the main contradiction of Catherine's "age of Enlightenment" has long been noted (although not shared by all experts): the empress "wanted so much enlightenment and such light so as not to be afraid of its" inevitable consequence. "In other words, Catherine II found herself in an explosive dilemma: education or slavery? And since she never solved this problem, leaving serfdom intact, she seems to have given rise to subsequent bewilderment about why she did not. But the above formula ("enlightenment - slavery") causes natural questions: were there at that time in Russia the appropriate conditions for the abolition of "slavery" and did the then society realize the need for a radical change in social relations in the country?Let's try to answer them.
Determining the course of her domestic policy, Catherine relied primarily on the book knowledge she had acquired. But not only. The transforming ardor of the empress at first was fueled by her initial assessment of Russia as "a country that has not yet been plowed up" where it is best to carry out all sorts of reforms. That is why on August 8, 1762, only in the sixth week of her reign, Catherine II by a special decree confirmed the March decree of Peter III on a ban on the purchase of serfs by industrialists. From now on, the owners of factories and mines must be content with the work of civilian workers paid according to the contract. It seems that she generally had the intention of abolishing forced labor and doing so in order to rid the country of the "shame of slavery", as required by the spirit of Montesquieu's teachings. But this intention was not yet strong enough in her to decide on such a revolutionary step. In addition, Catherine did not yet have any complete idea of \u200b\u200bRussian reality. On the other hand, as one of the smartest people of the Pushkin era, Prince P. A. Vyazemsky, noted, when the deeds of Catherine II had not yet become "a tradition of deep antiquity", she "loved reforms, but gradual ones, transformations, but not abrupt ones", without breaking.
By 1765, Catherine II came to the conclusion that it was necessary to convene the Legislative Commission in order to bring "in a better order" the existing legislation and in order to reliably find out "the needs and sensitive shortcomings of our people." Recall that attempts to convene the current legislative body - the Legislative Commission - have been made more than once before, but all of them, for various reasons, ended in failure. Considering this, Catherine, endowed with a remarkable mind, resorted to an act unprecedented in the history of Russia: she personally compiled a special "Instruction", which is a detailed program of action for the Commission.
As follows from a letter to Voltaire, she believed that the Russian people are "excellent soil in which good seed grows rapidly; but we also need axioms that are undeniably recognized as true." And these axioms are well known - the ideas of the Enlightenment, which she put as the basis of the new Russian legislation. Even V. O. Klyuchevsky specifically singled out the main condition for the implementation of Catherine’s reform plans, which she briefly stated in the “Instruction”: “Russia is a European power; Peter I, introducing European customs and customs among the European people, found such conveniences as I did not expect it myself. The conclusion followed by itself: the axioms, which are the last and best fruit of European thought, will find the same comforts in this people.
In the literature on the "Instruction" for a long time there has been an opinion about the purely compiling nature of this main Catherine's political work. Justifying such judgments, they usually refer to her own words, spoken to the French philosopher and educator D "Alembert: "You will see how there I robbed President Montesquieu for the benefit of my empire, without naming him. " Indeed, from 526 articles of the "Instruction", divided into 20 chapters, 294 go back to the work of the famous French educator Montesquieu "On the Spirit of Laws", and 108 - to the work of the Italian legal scholar Cesare Beccaria "On Crimes and Punishments". Catherine also widely used the works of other European thinkers. However, it was not a simple arrangement of the works of eminent authors into the Russian style, but their creative rethinking, an attempt to apply the ideas embedded in them to Russian reality.
(To be continued.)
