Author of the structural theory of personality traits. Theory of personality traits: basic concepts and principles. Factor theories of personality

Last update: 13/03/2015

Another approach to defining personality is dispositional theories.

If someone asked you to describe the personality of your close friend, how would you do it? Descriptions like "sociable", "kind" and "balanced" immediately come to mind, don't they? All of these are character traits. What exactly does the term "feature" mean? A character trait can be thought of as a relatively stable characteristic that causes people to behave in a certain way. This approach to the characterization of personality is one of the main theoretical directions in the study of personality. The theory of personality traits suggests that the personality of each individual person consists of individual dispositions.
Unlike other theories of personality - such as, for example, psychoanalytic or humanistic - the dispositional approach to the study of personality is focused on the differences between people. The combination and interaction of various traits in each person forms a personality unique in all respects. Trait theories aim to identify and possibly measure these individual personality traits.

Dispositional theory by Gordon Allport

In 1936, psychologist Gordon Allport discovered in one of his dictionaries of English language over 4,000 words used to describe various personality traits. In his classification, he divided these traits into three groups (dispositions):

• Cardinal character traits- traits that dominate throughout the life of the individual; often to such an extent that a person becomes recognizable precisely because of these traits. People with pronounced features often become so famous that their names become synonymous with these qualities - hence such concepts as “narcissus”, “alphonse”, “don Juan”, etc. appear in the language. Allport suggested that cardinal features are still rare and tend to show up later in life.
• Central character traits. These are common traits that form the basic foundations of personality. These, although not as pronounced as the cardinal ones, are the main characteristics that we can use to describe another person. "Smart", "honest", "shy" or "restless" are just examples of central traits.
• secondary features. They are most often associated with attitudes or preferences, usually appearing only in certain situations or under certain circumstances. Examples include the anxiety that a person has when having to speak in front of a large audience, or the impatience that manifests itself while waiting in line.

Raymond Cattell's Sixteen Factor Model of Personality

One of the prominent psychologists in this field, Raymond Cattell, reduced the number of basic personality traits from more than 4000 (in Allport's original list) to 171 - mainly by eliminating atypical traits from his predecessor's list, as well as combining the most general characteristics. Next, Cattell conducted an experiment - he asked the subjects to rate the people they knew using these signs. Then, using a statistical method known as factor analysis, he eventually narrowed down the list to just 16 top qualities. According to Cattell, these 16 traits are the source of all personality diversity. He also developed one of the most widely used methods for assessing a person's personality - the 16-factor personality questionnaire(16PF).

Three personal dimensions of Hans Eysenck

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Experimental studies of personality abroad were started by G. Eizenk and R. Kettel. merit G. Eysenka was the development of methods and procedures for mathematical processing of observational data, surveys and analysis of documents collected about a person from various sources.

G.Allport laid the foundations of a new theory of personality, called the "theory of traits", and R.Kettel , using the method of G. Eysenck, gave personality research, conducted within the framework of the theory of traits, an experimental character. He introduced the procedure pilot study personality method of factor analysis, singled out, described and identified a number of real factors, or personality traits. He also laid the foundations of modern personality testology, having developed one of the first personality tests, named after him (Kettel's 16-factor test).

Of all the definitions of personality proposed at the beginning of the experimental period for developing the problem of personality, the one given by G. Allport turned out to be the most successful: personality there is an individually unique set of psycho-physiological systems that is formed in vivo - personality traits that determine thinking and behavior that is unique for a given person.

G. Allport and R. Kettel began the development of a theory called trait theories . According to this theory, people differ from each other in the set and degree of development of their individual, independent features, and a description of a holistic personality can be obtained on the basis of a testological or other, less rigorous examination of it, based, for example, on a generalization of life observations different people behind this person.

A less rigorous way of identifying and evaluating personality traits is based on the study of the language, the choice of words-concepts from it, with the help of which a person is described from different angles. By reducing the list of selected words to the necessary and sufficient minimum (by excluding synonyms from their number), a full list all kinds of personality traits for their subsequent peer review at this person. G. Allport went in this way to the construction of a methodology for studying personality traits.

The second way to assess personality traits involves the use factor analysis- a complex method of modern statistics, which allows minimizing many different indicators and personality assessments obtained as a result of introspection, survey, life observations of people. The result is a set of statistically independent factors that are considered individual traits of a person's personality.

With the help of this method, R. Kettel managed to identify 16 different personality traits. Each of them received a double name characterizing the degree of its development: strong and weak. Based on the experimentally identified set of traits, R. Kettel built a 16-factor personality questionnaire.

The Cattell questionnaire contains more than 100 questions that are asked to the subjects; they answer in the affirmative or in the negative. Then the answers are grouped in accordance with the "key" (method of processing the results) and the severity of one or another factor is determined, indicating the development of the corresponding personality trait. Then the so-called "personality profile" of the subject is drawn, including his assessments for each factor.

The trait theory has some pretty serious limitations. Firstly, the quality of the source material subjected to factor analysis significantly depends on the identified set of personality traits. Using various initial data, researchers receive unequal lists of factors. Some believe that for a complete psychological characterization of a person it is enough to have only 5 traits, others argue that 20 is not enough for this.

Secondly, based on the knowledge of personality traits, it turned out to be almost impossible to accurately predict human behavior even in situations that are meaningfully related to the identified traits.

Personality Trait Theory: Basic Concepts and Principles

Cattell's theory seeks to explain complex interactions between the personality system and the more voluminous socio-cultural matrix of a functioning organism. He is convinced that an adequate theory of personality should take into account the numerous traits that make up individuality, the degree to which these traits are determined by heredity and influence. environment and how genetic and environmental factors interact to influence behavior. He argues that an adequate theory of the functioning and development of the personality must necessarily be based on rigorous research methods and accurate measurements. His favorite methods of studying personality are multivariate statistics and factor analysis.

According to Cattell, personality is what allows us to predict a person's behavior in a given situation (Cattell, 1965). Being a supporter of the mathematical analysis of personality, he was of the opinion that the prediction of behavior can be carried out through specification equations. The main formula used by Cattell to predict behavior with a certain degree of accuracy is:

It is said here that the nature of a person's specific response (R), meaning what he does, or thinks, or expresses in words, is some indefinite function (f) of the stimulating situation (S) at a particular moment in time and of the personality structure (P) . The specification equation shows that the characteristic response to any situation is a function of the combination of all traits that are significant for this situation; with each trait interacting with situational factors that may affect it.

Cattell recognizes how difficult it is to predict the behavior of any person in a given situation. In order to increase the accuracy of the prediction, the personologist must consider not only the traits that the personality possesses, but also non-trait variables, such as the mood of the person in this moment and specific social roles required by the situation. Moreover, it is necessary to weigh each trait in terms of its significance in the situation under consideration. For example, if a person were in an emotionally exciting situation, then in predicting his response, the greatest weight should be attributed to such a trait as anxiety. Therefore, the equation R = f(S, P) is a simplified extract of Cattell's theory of personality traits. However, from a cognitive point of view, we must not forget that this main formula confirms Cattell's conviction that human behavior can be determined and predicted.

Structural Principles: Categories of Personality Traits

Despite Cattell's assertion that behavior is determined by the interaction of traits and situational variables, his main organizing concept of personality lies in descriptions of the different types of traits he has identified. According to Cattell, personality traits are relatively constant tendencies to respond in certain ways to different situations and at different times. The spectrum of action of these tendencies is extremely wide. In other words, traits are hypothetical mental structures found in behavior that cause a predisposition to act in the same way in different circumstances and over time. Personality traits reflect stable and predictable psychological characteristics and are by far the most important in Cattell's concept.

As noted earlier, Cattell relies heavily on factor analysis in his study of the structural elements of personality (Cattell, 1965, 1978). As a result of conducting multiple factor analysis procedures on data collected in the course of a study of thousands of subjects, he concludes that personality traits can be classified or categorized in several ways. Consider Cattell's proposed principles for classifying traits (Kettel also uses the term factors).

Surface features are initial features.surface feature is a set of behavioral characteristics that, when observed, appear in an "inseparable" unity. For example, the observed manifestations of inability to concentrate, indecision and restlessness may be closely related to each other and constitute a superficial feature of neuroticism. Here neuroticism is confirmed by a set of interrelated visible elements, and not by any one of them. Since surface traits have no single basis and temporal permanence, Cattell does not consider them significant in explaining behavior.

Initial features, on the contrary, are the foundational structures that Cattell believes form the building blocks of the very building of personality. These are some combined values ​​or factors that ultimately determine the constancy that is observed in human behavior. Source traits exist at a "deeper" level of personality and determine various forms of behavior over a long period of time.

After extensive research using factor analysis, Cattell (1979) came to the conclusion that the basic structure of personality is formed by approximately sixteen initial traits (Tables 6-3). These personality trait factors are probably better known in connection with the scale now used to measure them: Cattell's Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF). This self-esteem scale and several others also developed by Cattell have proven to be extremely useful and popular in both applied and theoretical research. Below is a discussion of baseline traits assessed using the 16 PF Questionnaire.

Table 6-3. Main baseline traits identified using the Cattell Sixteen Personality Factors Questionnaire (16 PF)

(Source: adapted from Cattell, 1965.)

Constitutional traits are traits shaped by the environment. According to Cattell, the original traits can be divided into two subtypes - depending on their source. Constitutional features develop from the biological and physiological data of the individual. For example, recovering from a cocaine addiction can cause sudden irritability, depression, and anxiety. Cattell could argue that such behavior is a consequence of changes in human physiology and thus reflects constitutional original traits.

Traits shaped by the environment, on the contrary, are due to influences in the social and physical environment. These traits reflect the characteristics and behaviors learned through the learning process and form the pattern imprinted on the individual by their environment. So a man who grew up on a Midwestern farm behaves differently than a man who has spent his life in the slums of the city.

Ability, temperament and dynamic traits. The original features, in turn, can be classified in terms of the modality through which they are expressed. Capabilities how traits determine a person's skills and effectiveness in achieving a desired goal. Intelligence, musical ability, hand-eye coordination are some examples of abilities. Temperament traits refer to other emotional and stylistic qualities of behavior. For example, people can work on some task either quickly or slowly; they may react to some kind of crisis calmly or hysterically. Cattell considers temperament traits as constitutional initial traits that determine a person's emotionality. Finally, dynamic features reflect the motivational elements of human behavior. These are traits that activate and direct the subject towards specific goals. So, for example, a person can be characterized as ambitious, striving for power or interested in acquiring material wealth.

Common features are unique features. Like Allport, Cattell (1965) is convinced that it makes sense to classify traits into common and unique. common feature is a trait that is present to varying degrees in all members of the same culture. For example, self-esteem, intelligence, and introversion are common traits. On the contrary, unique features- these are traits that only a few or even one person has at all. Cattell suggests that unique traits are especially common in areas of interest and attitudes. For example, Sally is the only person to assemble a collection of reports of infant mortality in Sweden and Canada in 1930. Very few people, if any, would share this interest.

Almost all of Cattell's research is devoted to common features, but his recognition of unique features makes it possible to emphasize the importance of the unique individuality of people. He also believes that the organization of common features in a person is always unique in itself. However, we should not exaggerate the significance of Cattell's recognition of the uniqueness of the combination of traits in each individual person. In fact, he was much more interested general principles behavior than the individual's personality.

Data sources for factor analysis

We have already noted that Cattell emphasizes the importance of factor analysis for determining the main personality traits. However, before proceeding to the factor analysis procedure, you must first collect a lot of data on a huge sample. Cattell draws its data from three main sources: real life registration data (L - data), self-assessment data when filling out questionnaires (Q - data) and objective test data (OT - data).

First, L - data, are measures of behavior in specific everyday situations, such as school performance or peer relationships. These data may also include assessments of personality traits given by people who know the subject well in real life. life situations(for example, employees). Q - data - it is, on the contrary, a person's self-assessments concerning his behavior, thoughts and feelings. Such information reflects introspection and self-observation of the individual. To obtain Q-data, Cattell developed special self-assessment tests, of which the sixteen personality factors questionnaire (Cattell et al., 1970) deserves the most attention. At the same time, he expresses certain doubts about this type of data: people do not always know themselves well enough, or they may intentionally distort or falsify answers. He warns researchers that self-reported data should be approached with caution. And finally OT - data are obtained as a result of modeling special situations in which the actions of a person to perform certain tasks can be objectively evaluated. Here, according to Cattell, distinctive feature is that a person is placed in invented "miniature situations", and he reacts without knowing by what criteria his answers are evaluated. For example, a person may be offered a Rorschach test that does not give the opportunity for any kind of fake. So, OT - data is hard to distort.

Identification of initial traits empirically. To reflect the complexity of the individual and create multifaceted research strategy, Cattell considers it necessary to use many sources of data. This approach simultaneously takes into account various manifestations of personality parameters, but it does not allow the researcher to manipulate variables. Cattell argues that if such a multifaceted study as factor analysis is really capable of reliably determining the functional blocks of personality, then the same factors or initial traits can be obtained from the three above-mentioned different types data. This logical statement assumes that each data source actually measures common and fundamental personality traits.

Initially, Cattell subjected only L-data to factor analysis. He found 15 factors that seemed to best explain a person's personality. Then he and his colleagues tried to determine whether such factors would be derived from the Q-data. Literally thousands of questionnaire items were developed, which were offered to a very large number of people to fill out, after which the data were subjected to factorization in order to find out the matching items. The result of this colossal research effort was 16 PF. The list of initial traits derived using "16 PF" is presented in Table. 6–3. In general, the factors found using the Q data were consistent with those found using the L data; only some of them turned out to be unique for both types of data. And in particular, the first 12 factors listed in Table. 6–3 occurred in both the Q-data and the L-data, while the last four factors derived from the Q-data did not match the L-data.

Concerning the degree of influence of personality traits on behavior, Cattell (1965) suggested that one trait is stronger than another if it has high loads in more patterns of behavioral manifestations (that is, a common set of traits that can be used to describe a person). Therefore, factor A (responsiveness - alienation) is the strongest feature listed in Table. 6-3, because it has a greater influence on the behavior of people in various situations than any other trait. Whether we are talking about such events as school performance, the effectiveness of secretarial work, the feat of a soldier or a successful marriage - in all these cases, factor A makes a very significant contribution to human activity. Situations in which factor B (intelligence) is involved are not so numerous; and even fewer in which factor C (emotional stability) plays a significant role, and so on, throughout the list. Therefore, the strength of a trait is determined by its significance for the regulation of behavior in various circumstances.

The role of heredity and the environment. Cattell's uniqueness as a scientist lies in the fact that he made an attempt to determine the comparative contribution of heredity and environment to the development of personality traits. To this end, he developed a statistical procedure - multidisciplinary abstract variant analysis(Multiple Abstract Variance Analysis, MAVA), which evaluates not only the presence or absence of genetic influence, but also the degree to which traits are determined by genetic or environmental influences (Cattell, 1960). This procedure involves the collection of data on the various manifestations of similarity between identical twins who grew up in the same family; between siblings (brothers and sisters) who grew up in the same family; identical twins raised in different families and siblings who grew up apart. The results of applying the MAVA technique (based on the use of personality tests to assess a particular personality trait) show that the significance of genetic and environmental influences varies significantly from trait to trait. For example, data indicate that about 65–70% of the variation in intelligence and self-confidence scores can be attributed to genetic factors, while genetic influences on traits such as self-awareness and neuroticism are likely to be half as large. . In general, according to Cattell, about two-thirds of personality characteristics are determined by environmental influences and one-third by heredity.

According to Cattell, in addition to the direct impact of situational factors, people's behavior is largely influenced by the groups to which they belong (family, church, peer groups, colleagues, school, nationality). By means of personality traits, one can describe not only individuals, but also the social groups of which they are members. The range of traits by which groups can be objectively characterized is called their synthality(syntality). Using factor analysis, Cattell (1949) studied the synthality of various religious, educational, and occupational groups. He also studied the group of traits that make up the synthality of entire nations (Cattell et al., 1952). The main features that identify the synthality of countries include the size of its territory, morale, wealth and degree of industrialization. No other personologist has done as much as Cattell in the direction detailed description traits that characterize society as a whole, as well as studying the influence of these traits on human behavior.

Final comments

In terms of the breadth and scope of research in the field of personality, no doubt, Cattell deserves recognition as the most outstanding personologist of our time. His scientific and research activities have touched on almost all aspects of personality theory - structure, development, motivation, psychopathology, mental health and change. His efforts to construct a theory based on precision measurement techniques are truly impressive. As one of his followers notes, Cattell is worthy of every admiration: "It should be noted that Cattell's original program in the study of personality was the result of an extremely rich theoretical system, which turned out to be much more fruitful for empirical research than any other theory" (Wiggins, 1984, p. .190). However, unfortunately, Cattell's theory did not receive due appreciation from many personologists who studied the personality of a person, and, in fact, remained little known to the general public. Critics point out that Cattell's writings are written in complex language and difficult to understand. There is also criticism of his excessive commitment to factor analysis, as well as the subjectivity of his proposed formulations, interpretations and names of the main features obtained by the statistical method. Despite the lack of attention to his work and some well-deserved reproaches against him, Cattell remains a staunch adherent of his approach, which, in all likelihood, will enable us to understand the structure and functions of personality. We hope that this brief review will serve as a stimulus for students to become more seriously acquainted with Cattell's theory. We especially recommend the work he wrote as a final year student at the university - "The Scientific Analysis of Personality" (Cattell, 1965).

Cattell is by no means the only personologist who has devoted himself to the study of the basic structure of personality traits. Hans Eysenck also used factor analysis to identify a range of aspects needed to explain human behavior. Below we consider the theory of trait types, which completes our review of the dispositional direction in personality theory.