Egyptian knowledge. Scientific knowledge of ancient Egypt. Livestock accounting. Above each type of animal are numbers showing their number in a wealthy owner. Photo: Lepsius

Ancient Egypt seems to us a country of cunning builders and wise priests, cruel pharaohs and obedient slaves, but above all it was a country of scientists. Perhaps, among all ancient civilizations, it was Ancient Egypt that advanced the most in terms of science. The knowledge of the Egyptians, although scattered and not systematized, cannot but surprise modern man.

Mathematics, physics, chemistry, medicine, architecture and construction - this is not a complete list of scientific disciplines in which the civilization of Ancient Egypt left its mark.
During the construction of the pyramids, Egyptian architects made serious progress in calculating the proportions of the building being built, the depth of the foundation and the levels of ledges in the masonry.
The needs of agriculture forced the priests to learn how to calculate the floods of the Nile, which required knowledge of astronomy. The ancient Egyptians came to the need for a calendar. Ancient Egyptian calendar, construction principles
which are relevant today, divided into 3 seasons, which consisted of 4 months each. There were 30 days in a month, while there were 5 more days outside the months. Note that the Egyptians did not use leap years, since their calendar was ahead of the natural one. Egyptian astronomers also singled out constellations in the sky and understood that they are in the sky not only at night, but also during the day.
In physical science, the Egyptians used the power of friction - during the construction of the pyramids, slaves poured oil under the carts, which facilitated the movement of goods.
From the ancient Egyptians, the first textbooks - problem books - in mathematics have come down to us. From them we learn that the Egyptians were able to solve complex problems using fractions and unknowns, and also advanced deeply in calculating the volume of the pyramid.
Medicine also developed rapidly. Numerous military campaigns of the pharaohs led to the need to treat a large number of warriors, primarily representatives of the nobility. Therefore, it is no coincidence that most of the medical texts that have come down to us talk about ways to treat certain injuries. Of particular importance is attached to traumatic brain injuries (although the Egyptians did not consider the brain to be the main vital organ) and wounds inflicted by weapons.
Summarizing, we note that in terms of its scientific achievements, hardly any ancient Eastern civilization was able to surpass Ancient Egypt. The knowledge of the Egyptians was so superior to the scientific knowledge of their contemporaries that even the Greeks considered the inhabitants of the Nile Valley the wisest of people and sought to learn from the most educated population of ancient Egypt - the priests.

All significant cultural discoveries were made by the Egyptians first in the world. They didn't have anyone to learn from. They had an early idea of ​​all the major branches of knowledge. This is evidenced by the creation of the world's first encyclopedia about 3 thousand years ago. It had sections: sky, water, plants, animals, cities, foreign peoples. Works on medicine, astronomy, and mathematics have survived to our time. The first and main achievement of the Egyptians was the discovery of writing.
Ancient Egyptian writing. Already in the IV millennium BC. e. so much useful knowledge was known that it was impossible to keep it in memory. There was a need to preserve them and pass them on to future generations. This led to the creation of one of the most ancient writing systems.
At first, the Egyptians drew more than they wrote. When it was necessary to designate a certain word, they made a small drawing. Everyone understood the painted figures of a lion, an eagle, a pyramid, a plow. In this way, more complex concepts were written down. So, a human eye with tears meant "cry", and a person with hands tied - "prisoner". A horizontal stripe with a star above it was read as "night".
Then the writing became much simpler. Separate signs-drawings began to be read as syllables with two or three sounds. Then signs-letters appeared, which meant only one consonant sound in the letter. The Egyptians skipped vowel sounds.
Separate signs-drawings are called hieroglyphs. About 750 hieroglyphs were used in writing. Most often, hieroglyphic inscriptions can be seen carved on the walls of palaces and temples, on sculptures and other stone objects.
The Egyptians were the first to discover a convenient writing material similar to paper. It was made from a reed called papyrus. It grew densely along the banks of the Nile, in the swamps of the delta, reaching a height of 3-6 m. Papyrus stalks were cut into long narrow strips, put their edges on top of each other and glued into sheets that were dried. To record large texts, sheets of papyri were glued into long strips. The length of the papyri most known to scientists varies from 10 to 45 m. Flexible sheets and strips of papyrus were rolled into tubes. They were usually kept in earthen jars. They wrote with ink using a reed or a reed brush.
It must be remembered that the Belarusian word "paper" comes from the ancient Egyptian "papyrus".
Medicine in Egypt. Egyptian doctors were especially respected in the countries of the ancient world. They were invited to work in other countries.
The Egyptians had doctors for various diseases. This was already noticed by the Greek Herodotus, when he was in Egypt: “Each doctor treats only one disease. Therefore, they have many doctors everywhere. Some treat eyes, others head, third teeth, fourth stomach, fifth - internal diseases. Egyptian doctors correctly understood the important role of the heart. They had knowledge about the course of "the heart, from which the vessels for any part of the body come."
Doctors were taught in the "houses of life" that were attached to the temples. There, the students copied the papyri of medical content, such as the "Book of the Heart", "The Book of Eye Diseases".
Treatment began with a questioning of the patient, then examined him, measured the pulse. The doctor was obliged to sincerely tell the patient the following: 1) "This is a disease that I will treat," or 2) "This is a disease that I will fight," or 3) "This disease cannot be cured."
Maths. Originating in ancient times, Egyptian mathematics significantly influenced the mathematics of other ancient peoples. The historian Herodotus wrote: "I believe that geometry was invented in Egypt and from there it came to Greece." The famous Greek mathematician Archimedes studied in Egypt for many years.
Mathematics was born out of practical needs. With the advent of the state, officials with assistants walked around the villages. They counted the animals, measured the sown fields in order to calculate the amount of tax from each peasant. So there was a need for arithmetic. During the construction of irrigation systems, their own measurements were needed. This contributed to the emergence of geometry.
Collections of Egyptian mathematical problems have survived. The condition of one of them says about 7 houses, about 7 cats in each house, about 7 mice eaten by each cat, about 7 spikelets eaten by each mouse, about 7 measures of grain that each ear gives. Task: How many measures of grain did the cats save? Answer: 19 507.

Astronomy. They began to engage in it to improve the calendar with the development of agriculture. It was also necessary to accurately determine the beginning of the Nile flood, which occurs exactly one year later. The Egyptians made a map of the starry sky. By the stars they found their way to the sea and the desert. The constellation "Ursa Major" was called by the Egyptians "Bull's Leg".
The Egyptian calendar is compiled on an astronomical basis. The year, which had 365 days, they divided into 12 months. The night consisted of 12 hours. The day was also divided into 12 hours.
The Egyptians invented sun and water clocks.
School. Time has preserved many Egyptian inscriptions and papyri. This indicates a high level of literacy among the Egyptians. There was no unified system of education. Schools were located at temples and state institutions, separate school buildings were not built. There are examples when children started going to school at the age of five.
At first they were taught to write and read. For exercises in writing, younger students were given lined clay shards or flat stone tablets. Valuable papyrus was received only by older students. Each student independently prepared black and red ink. The main text was written in black, and in red - titles and first lines.
There were no teachers for individual subjects. They taught mostly scribes. It was obligatory to memorize poems and religious works.
There were higher schools for future soldiers and ambassadors to other countries. In them, students were required to quickly answer such questions, for example: “How many bricks do you need to build a site of a certain size? How to put a large sculpture on the base? How many workers are needed to transport a column of a certain length and weight? In such schools they taught music, swimming, jumping, running. Among the pharaoh were officials with a good knowledge of foreign languages.
Thus, the ancient Egyptians were among the first to independently create a perfect written language for their time, achieved significant success in medicine, mathematics, and astronomy. Their calendar is almost the same as the one we use. They knew how to educate educated people.

How Egyptian hieroglyphs were read
The language and writing of the ancient Egyptians were forgotten many centuries ago. Many scientists have tried to solve this mystery, but success has not come.
At the beginning of the XIX century. A very interesting inscription was brought to Europe from Egypt. It was carved on a large stone in two ancient languages ​​at once - Egyptian and Greek. It began to be studied by the capable young scientist Champollion, who had previously quickly learned many languages. He also knew ancient Greek well.
In this inscription, the names of kings and queens were surrounded by a round frame. Champollion was the first in the world in 1822 to read such well-known names in history as Cleopatra, Thutmose. Soon he published the first textbook and dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. Champollion is rightly considered the founder of modern science of the history and culture of Ancient Egypt.

Department of History of Russia and Foreign Countries

Test

In the discipline "History of the Ancient World"

The development of scientific knowledge of the ancient Egyptians

Introduction

Chapter I. The specifics of the development of scientific knowledge and their special features

1.1Exact sciences

1.2Natural Sciences

3medical art

Chapter II. The Importance of Ancient Egyptian Science in the Development of Other Civilizations

2.1 The influence of science on the development of the civilization of Ancient Egypt

2.2 The influence of ancient Egyptian science nor the development of other civilizations

Conclusion

List of used literature

Introduction

Human life is inextricably linked with science. Scientific discoveries have made life easier for mankind: with the development of medicine, it got rid of many previously incurable diseases, discoveries in the field of physics allowed it to use modern technologies for domestic purposes. Flights into space are actively carried out, it became possible to transmit data at the speed of light.

But mankind has been interested in science since ancient times. The Egyptians achieved great success in this. They learned how to embalm bodies, which led to the emergence of medical knowledge; knowledge of hygiene, dietetics, obstetrics, dentistry, anatomy was extensive. Egypt was considered the birthplace of cosmetology (which indicates significant knowledge in the field of chemistry) and the doctrine of skin diseases. They noticed a change in the position of the heavenly bodies in certain periods, which led to the development of astronomy and the creation of a calendar. The Egyptians began to apply mathematical knowledge in practice; the scope was wide: from counting crops to operations such as recording complex astronomical data. Studied geography.

But, the difference between the ancient states is that the role of religion was huge. And ancient Egypt, whose science was closely connected with religion and superstition, is no exception. Therefore, along with quite real descriptions of any phenomena, we can also find references to various gods or entities, just as in medical texts, along with recipes or instructions, there are texts of spells.

It is worth noting that the knowledge of the ancient Egyptians was of an applied nature, i.e. were closely connected with life. The accumulation of knowledge was driven by practical needs. The science of ancient Egypt was designed to make work easier; without a certain set of scientific knowledge, the normal functioning of the economy, construction, military affairs, and government were impossible.

Writing also made it possible to record this knowledge and pass it on to the next generations.

The knowledge of the ancient Egyptians had a significant impact on the development of ancient and, consequently, European, and later modern science.

The object of this work is the culture of Ancient Egypt. The subject is the scientific knowledge of the ancient Egyptians. The purpose of the work is to determine the specifics of the development of this civilization. The tasks set are to reveal the reasons for the development of scientific knowledge, to identify the specifics of the development of certain knowledge and to consider special features, to find out the role of Egyptian science in the development of other civilizations.

Among the works devoted to this problem, I would like to note the work of I.M. Dyakonov, in which he examined the emergence and initial stages of development of early class societies and states in the Nile Valley (IV-II millennium BC).

M.E. Mathieu in her work described in detail the stages of development of various fields of science and culture of Ancient Egypt, which helped to more accurately determine the specifics of their development.

I would also like to highlight the works of V. V. Struve, devoted to a deep study of the countries of the Ancient East, and in particular, Egypt, which made it possible to consider in detail the history of the development of the Ancient Egyptian civilization.

In the book by S.V. and V.A. Karpushins, an overview of the history of world culture is given - from ancient times to the present day. Based on the material of the monuments of world culture, the interrelation and mutual influence of various spheres of culture in a certain historical period can be traced. The theme of the interaction of cultures, passing through the whole book, reveals the unity of the world cultural and historical process.

Chapter I. The specifics of the development of scientific knowledge and their special features

1 Exact sciences

Mathematical calculations required determining the beginning, maximum and end of the rise of water in the Nile, the timing of sowing, ripening of grain and harvest, the need to measure land, the boundaries of which had to be restored after each spill. Ancient Egyptian mathematics arose from the needs of office work and economic activity. The Egyptians could calculate the area of ​​the field, the capacity of the basket, the barn, the size of the heap of grain, the division of property among the heirs. Mathematical knowledge was supposed to facilitate the work of surveyors and builders. Mathematical calculations were also used in organizing trips and expeditions to distant countries.

Practical problems were used to record and distribute the harvest, complex calculations in the construction of temples, tombs and palaces. Numbers were invented at the same time as writing. The Egyptians created a number system close to decimal non-positional and developed special signs - numbers for 1 (vertical bar), 10 (sign of a bracket or horseshoe), 100 (sign of a twisted rope), 1000 (image of a lotus stem), 10,000 (raised human finger ), 100,000 (image of a tadpole), 1,000,000 (figurine of a squatting deity with raised arms). They knew how to perform addition and subtraction, multiplication and division, had an idea about fractions, in the numerator of which there was always 1. Special tables were used for calculations related to fractions. They also knew how to raise to a power and extract square roots.

But some primitiveness of Egyptian mathematics is indicated by the way the four simple arithmetic operations are applied. For example, when multiplying and dividing, they used the method of sequential actions. In order to multiply eight by eight, the Egyptian had to make four successive multiplications by two; and to divide, you had to figure out how much you need to multiply the divisor to get the dividend (“5x6” looked like (5x2) + (5x2) + (5x2)).

The ancient Egyptian mathematician had to be able to quickly and accurately calculate the number of bricks needed for construction, the number of people to move any artifact.

A document has been preserved in which the scribe Hori ridicules the "unlucky ignoramus":

“Here you are given a pond, which you must dig. And then you come to me to find out about provisions for people, and you say: “calculate this for me!” ... Here, you need to build an embankment 730 cubits long and 55 cubits wide ... At the top it is 70 cubits, in the middle - 30 cubits ... They ask how many bricks are needed for her - all the scribes have gathered, and none of them knows anything. They all rely on you and say: “You are a learned scribe, my friend, so resolve this for us quickly! Behold, your name is known - let it not happen that they say about you: “there are things that you do not know!” Tell us how many bricks do you need?

Behold, a new obelisk was made, 110 cubits high and 10 cubits at the base. Calculate for us how many people we need to drag him. Do not make me send twice, for this monument lies ready in the quarry. Answer quickly!

The Egyptians knew arithmetic progression. They had some very elementary knowledge in the field of algebra, being able to calculate equations with one unknown, and they called the unknown the word “heap”.

Very characteristic of the forms of Egyptian mathematics are peculiar units of length and written signs for their designation. For this, some parts of the human body were used: a finger, a palm, a foot and an elbow, between which the Egyptian mathematician established certain relationships.

A good example of the high degree of development of ancient Egyptian mathematics are the pyramids. The accuracy of building measurements, the very perfect paint marking of the corners, depths and levels of ledges on the pyramidal masonry are the best confirmation.

The high level of mathematical knowledge can be judged by the content of two surviving papyri: the London Mathematical Papyrus Rind, which gives a solution to 80 complex problems, and the Moscow Mathematical Papyrus from the collection of the Pushkin Museum im. A. S. Pushkin, containing answers to 25 problems.

Geometry reached a high development in ancient Egypt. It, like mathematics, was of great practical importance. The Egyptians knew how to determine the surface of a rectangle, a triangle, in particular an isosceles one, a hemisphere, a trapezoid. Also, ancient Egyptian mathematicians could calculate the area of ​​a circle, taking the value π equal to 3.16, although the concepts of number π didn't exist. The Moscow "Mathematical Papyrus" preserved solutions to difficult problems for calculating the volume of a truncated pyramid and a hemisphere. Some knowledge in the field of geometry made it possible to draw up schematic maps of the area and very primitive drawings.

Metrology has been developed. There is a clear system of measures. The measure of length was the “elbow”, equal to 52.3 cm. The elbow, in turn, consisted of seven “palms”, and each palm was divided into four “fingers”. The main measure of the area was considered "cut", equal to 100 square meters. elbows. The main measure of weight is "deben", which was equal to 91 g.

2 Natural sciences

Astrology played a huge role in the life of Ancient Egypt. Egyptian priests have been observing the stars, probably since the emergence of the first settlements in the Nile Valley.

The Egyptians studied well the starry sky visible to the naked eye, they distinguished between fixed stars and wandering planets. The stars were combined into constellations and received the names of those animals, the contours of which, according to the priests, they resembled (“bull”, “scorpion”, “hippopotamus”, “crocodile”, etc.). Pretty accurate catalogs of stars, maps of the starry sky were compiled. The position of the stars was determined using a simple plumb line and a plank with a split. One of the observers sat facing north, and opposite him the assistant sat in such a way that one star was visible at his shoulder, another at his elbow, and a third above his head. The stars were observed by looking through the cleft of the tablet so that an imaginary line could be drawn through the clefts of both observers towards the North Star. This line was the meridian of the area (Egyptian noon meridian), using which the positions of the stars were determined. What was seen was recorded in special papyri - maps. Such maps were drawn for every hour of every night of the year. Tables of the position of stars and celestial bodies helped Egyptian astronomers in determining the spatial position. Astronomical priests were able to predict solar eclipses and calculate their duration. But this side of astronomical knowledge was the undivided secret of the higher priesthood.

The agricultural annual cycle has led to the need to create a calendar. In ancient Egypt there were two of them: lunar and solar.

The lunar calendar was used as a religious calendar and fixed the time of the holidays. The lunar month consisted of 29 or 30 days. The first day of the invisibility of the old Moon was taken as the beginning of the month. The lunar year consisted of 12, and sometimes - of 13 months. The decision to insert an additional (13th) month was made on the basis of observations of the heliacal risings of the star Sirius (approximately coinciding with the summer solstice). Insertions have always been made in such a way as to keep the celebration of the rising of Sirius in the same month of the lunar year. A year containing 13 months was called by the Egyptians a "big year".

The civil calendar was solar. For the competent organization of the annual agricultural cycle, it was necessary to be able to determine the arrival of the next season, predict the flood of the Nile, make some forecasts regarding the abundance of flood waters, so he was completely focused on agricultural activities. It was one of the first solar calendars (originated about 4 thousand years BC). It was used in the administrative and economic life of Egypt, because. due to the unpredictability of insertions in the lunar calendar, it was often impossible to indicate in advance the date of any future event. At first, the length of the year was set at 360 days. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days, the month - into three large weeks of 10 days or 6 small weeks of 5 days. Later, the length of the year was specified. At the end of the year, five additional days were added, which were considered holidays of the gods. In the texts of the inscriptions, the first four months were called "flood months", the next four - "months of growth", or "grain", and the last four - "heat months" or "harvest months" (each month was dedicated to certain agricultural works). Due to the fact that the real solar year contains approximately 365.25 days, every four years the Egyptian New Year came a day earlier than the previous one. Therefore, over the course of the centuries, the beginning of the Egyptian year shifted through all the seasons of the year; for this feature, the Egyptian civil calendar received the name "wandering" in the Hellenistic era. But, despite this, the pharaohs, upon accession to the throne, took an oath not to change the length of the year.

The division of the year into periods of flood, growth, and heat indicates that, at the time of the introduction, it appeared to the Egyptians as an agricultural year, which began with the flood of the Nile (foreshadowed by the morning rise of Sirius) and contained three seasons. The beginning of the year coincided with the rise of the water in the Nile, that is, from July 19, the day of the rising of the brightest star, Sirius. The day was divided into 24 hours, but the value of the hour was not constant, but fluctuated depending on the time of year (daytime hours were long in summer, night hours were short, and vice versa in winter).

Observations of the stars were closely connected with the belief in the connection of earthly events, the fate of individuals and entire nations with the movement of the stars. The Egyptians believed that the stars could predict the future in advance, the priests compiled special calendars, which indicated "happy" and "unlucky" days and even parts of the day. On "unlucky" days, it was forbidden to start any business, or even leave the house, because. "The man was in danger."

Chemistry in ancient Egypt was exclusively applied. The main task was to obtain substances with the necessary properties.

It was used in glass making. Faience jewelry, colored glass beads - the most important branch of the jewelry art of the ancient Egyptians. The rich color range of jewelry demonstrates the ability of Egyptian glassmakers to use a variety of mineral and organic additives for coloring raw materials. Colored pastes were invented, which covered large beads or made them from colored smalts.

Another aspect of the application of chemical knowledge is leather and weaving. The Egyptians learned to tan leather in ancient times and used natural tannin for this purpose, which is rich in acacia seeds growing in Egypt. A variety of natural dyes were also used in the dressing of fabrics - linen and woolen. The main colors are blue, for which indigo paint was used, and yellow.

The main field of application of chemical knowledge is the embalming of the dead within the framework of the cult of the dead. The need to keep the body in order during the eternal afterlife required the creation of reliable embalming compositions that did not allow rotting and decomposition of tissues. In ancient Egypt, there were master embalmers who knew three ways to embalm bodies.

Consider one of them: the bodies of the pharaohs were embalmed in this way. First, the brain was removed from the body of the deceased, and what could not be removed was removed by injecting solvent solutions. Then all internal organs were removed from the body cavity, except for the heart. The removed organs were stored in canopies - special vessels. The body cavity was washed with palm wine, the master embalmers cleaned it again with crushed incense. Afterwards, the body cavity was filled with clean, pounded myrrh, cassia, and other spices and sewn up. Then the body was placed in soda lye for 70 days. The saturation of mummies with balms was sometimes so high that the tissues were charred over the centuries. After this period, the body was washed, dried in a special way and tied with sheets of fine linen, and the bandages were fastened with gum (analogous to glue).

It follows from this that the ancient Egyptians knew the properties of certain substances quite well, which made it possible to successfully preserve bodies and products to this day. Also, thanks to the preparation of the body, the master embalmers knew how the body is arranged, i.e. possessed great knowledge in the field of anatomy.

But, it should be noted that chemistry was considered a divine science, and its secrets were carefully guarded by the priests.

3 Medical art

Thanks to the cult of the dead, and in particular, mummification, the ancient Egyptians gained extensive knowledge about the internal structure of the human body. The fractional specialization of doctors was typical, each doctor treated only one disease. The best doctors became the court physicians of the pharaoh and his family. First, the doctor determined the symptoms of the disease, and then made examinations and analyzes, recording in detail the data of his observations and examinations. Treatment methods for about a hundred different diseases have been identified and recommended. A fairly accurate description of some diseases, their symptoms and phenomena allows us to judge the presence of some knowledge among the Egyptians in the field of diagnostics.

Ancient Egyptian doctors knew that the heart provides blood circulation in the body and, according to the teachings, is the main organ from which the vessels diverge to all members of the body. They had information about the nervous system and the consequences of brain injuries (for example, that an injury to the right side of the skull causes paralysis of the left side of the body, and vice versa).

The scope of medical knowledge was wide. Egyptian physicians treated various fevers, dysentery, dropsy, rheumatism, diseases of the heart, liver, respiratory tract, diabetes, most stomach diseases, ulcers, etc., as well as various injuries: head, throat, collarbones, chest, spine. They were able to make an accurate diagnosis.

Surgery was highly developed. Surgeons ventured into fairly complex operations on the skull, nose, chin, ears, lips, throat, larynx, collarbones, shoulders, chest, and spine. Surgical instruments made of bronze were used, which were calcined on fire before the operation and kept as clean as possible, just like the patient and everything that surrounded him.

There was extensive knowledge in the field of gynecology. Early and late births were described, and means were given to "distinguish a woman who can give birth from one who cannot."

There were also teachings on hygiene, dietetics, midwifery and other areas.

A specific feature of Egyptian medicine is the division of diseases into three categories: 1) A disease that a doctor can cure; 2) The disease with which the doctor will fight (a disease whose outcome is not clear.); 3) Incurable disease. The doctor was required to immediately name the diagnosis.

An example of such treatment: “If you examine a person who has a wound in his brow that reaches the bone, you must feel his wound and then pull off its edges with a stitch.

You should say about him: "he who has a wound in his eyebrow is a disease that I will cure."

After you sew up his wound, you must bandage fresh meat on it. If you find that the seams of the wound have loosened, you must pull it together with two strips of linen, and you must lubricate it with fat and honey every day until it heals.

The oldest and most important branch of medicine in Ancient Egypt was pharmacology. Doctors knew herbs and their medicinal properties, so drugs were made from plant and animal ingredients. Various plants (onion, garlic, lotus, flax, poppy, dates, grapes) were used as medicines, from which various juices and oils were extracted by evaporation, infusion, squeezing, fermentation, straining, minerals (antimony, soda, sulfur, clay, lead, saltpeter), substances of organic origin (processed animal organs, blood, milk), morphine. Medicines were usually prepared in the form of infusions with milk, honey, and beer.

Cosmetology originated in ancient Egypt. It was there that the first cosmetics guide, compiled by Queen Cleopatra, was created. Cosmetics were used both for medicinal and decorative purposes, various procedures were carried out aimed at removing unwanted hair, hair and nail coloring was popular. Soap was known and used. And when it was not there, they used soda and ash. Women in ancient Egypt not only skillfully painted, but also made paints, powders, blush and whitewash.

In ancient Egypt, there was a rite of purification for commanders who returned from battles. For several days and nights in the seclusion of the temple, the priests restored the physical and mental health of the military leaders with the help of mud, clay, vegetable balms, massage oils, fruit and vegetable mixtures, sour milk, young beer and water baths, alternating contrasting states of activity and relaxation.

The technique of making cosmetics was owned by the priests. They used numerous plants, oils and other natural substances. A cosmetologist had the right to touch the body of the Pharaoh, which was impossible for other close associates and nobles of Egypt.

In medicine, as in no other field of science, the huge influence of religion affected. Initially, doctors were priests, each Egyptian doctor belonged to a certain college of priests. The sick went to the temple, where they were recommended a suitable doctor. Payment for treatment was paid to the temple that maintained the doctor. Without exception, all medical prescriptions were accompanied by appropriate magic spells and conspiracies for each specific case. For example, when measuring the exact dose of medicine for a patient in a special vessel, the doctor had to say:

“This measuring vessel in which I measure the medicine is the measuring vessel in which Horus measured his eye. It was measured correctly, and life, health and well-being were found.

Measuring this medicine in a measuring vessel - in order to drive away any disease that is in this body.

Only in the period of the New Kingdom did medical treatises leave the walls of scribe schools. Medicine has been largely secularized.

But religion still played an important role in the treatment of diseases. During the treatment, prayers were always read, and the more serious the illness, the more important it was probably to say them. The Egyptians believed that a miracle could heal the sick. If the miracle did not happen, the patient will be sent a prophetic dream, on which the doctor will be able to base his further treatment. In some cases, the sick were allowed to spend the night in the temple room next to the sanctuary.

Ancient Egyptian physicians enjoyed such high prestige in the Middle East that they sometimes traveled to neighboring countries at the invitation of their masters.

The achievements of ancient Egyptian medicine were widely borrowed by other peoples, for example, by the authors of medical treatises of the ancient world.

Some of the remedies and treatments used by ancient Egyptian physicians are used in modern medicine.

An indicator of the great success of Egyptian medicine is the fact that 10 medical papyri have survived to our time, of which Ebers' large medical papyrus (a scroll 20.5 m long) and Edwin Smith's surgical papyrus (a scroll 5 m long) are real encyclopedias.

Of the social sciences, the most important achievements were in the field of historical knowledge: records of the succession of reigns and major events have been preserved.

The development of scientific knowledge was caused by purely practical purposes. Thanks to the development of the economy, economic and cultural ties with neighboring peoples, observations of nature led to the gradual accumulation of knowledge, which was largely applied in nature.

Chapter II. The Importance of Ancient Egyptian Science in the Development of Other Civilizations

1 The influence of science on the development of the civilization of Ancient Egypt

ancient egyptian science knowledge

Egypt is a state located on a fertile plot of soil in the valley and delta of the Nile River. Thanks to the seasonal floods of the Nile, a well-developed irrigation system developed here, requiring the efforts of a huge mass of people. Without the accumulation of knowledge, the organization of agriculture and the life of the state was impossible.

With the development of scientific knowledge, the phrase “reh hetu” (knowing things) appeared in the ancient Egyptian language to denote a “scientist, educated” person. Such people were necessary for the life of the state: in agriculture - they determined the time of the Nile floods, counted the harvest; at the court of the pharaoh - a staff of officials, mainly scribes who kept records; at a construction site - calculated the size of the building and the number of people required to move it.

But the "knowers" in ancient Egypt were not only scribes and scientists, but also nobles and noble women who were depicted as receiving statements from managers. Literacy was also widespread outside the ruling circles. This is evidenced by written instructions to the builders, hastily depicted on the stones of the then buildings.

The accumulated knowledge was passed on to the future generation in special schools. For the most part, these were either court schools of scribes, in which the children of slave-owning aristocrats studied, or special schools located at the central departments, in which scribes-officials were trained for a particular department, for example, for the royal treasury. Strict discipline reigned in these schools, which was supported by the use of corporal punishment and inspired by special "Instructions". Also, there were special dictionaries, collections of terms in which were grouped by topic: sky, water, earth, plants, animals, people, professions, positions, foreign tribes and peoples, food products, drinks; as well as manuals, according to which the Egyptian scribes learned the Akkadian language.

Education began at the age of five and lasted 12 years; schoolchildren of noble parents at that time received ranks and titles. Classes started early in the morning and continued until late in the evening. The students were taught mainly difficult and complex literacy, forcing them to write off about three pages daily from special copybooks. The student had to firmly master not only the spelling system, but also complex calligraphy and style. There were higher scribal schools, called "per ankh" - the house of life. At school, the student had to learn first to read fluently, to write competently and beautifully, then to draw up various business documents, letters, petitions, court records. He learned to choose the right turns of speech, correctly and figuratively express his thoughts. Young people preparing to become ambassadors studied foreign languages ​​(for example, Babylonian). At school they taught mathematics of geography, moreover, the student had to be able to draw one or another plan of the area; special schools taught astronomy and medicine.

Thus, there was a certain canon of knowledge required for an educated scribe, and by the end of training, young people already occupied some position.

Thanks to the development of scientific knowledge, Ancient Egypt became the first world power with a rich historical past, estimated at almost 3 thousand years.

2.2 The influence of ancient Egyptian science on the development of other civilizations

The cultural heritage of Egypt influenced not only the ancient Mediterranean. It was "the source from which the Greeks, Romans, and then the Arabs" drew knowledge in various fields of science. The influence of ancient Egyptian science is quite noticeable in the field of scientific terms. Egyptian words for a wide variety of concepts through Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic were adopted by the Romance, Germanic and Slavic languages ​​and are still widely used. For example, the word "chemistry" (from the Coptic word "himi") is "Egypt". Egyptian doctors were famous for their art throughout Asia Minor.

The Egyptians passed on to the peoples of the Mediterranean the technique of making paper from papyrus (Palestine and Phoenicia). The knowledge of the Egyptians in various fields had a significant impact on the development of ancient, and, consequently, European science. The great thinkers of antiquity - Thales, Solon, Plato, Anaximander, Democritus, Pythagoras, Archimedes - visited Egypt and studied with the Egyptian priests, who were scientists. The Greek and Roman world borrowed from the Egyptians not only elements of mathematics, astronomy and medicine, but also a number of views and techniques of the Egyptians in other areas of mental and spiritual life.

The Greeks have always looked to Egypt as a land of ancient wisdom and considered the Egyptians to be their teachers. Ancient Egyptian astronomy laid the foundation for the well-known theory, which served as the basis for future time, about concentric spheres in which the stars revolve around the Earth as around a center. The Greeks were students of Egypt mainly in mathematics and astronomy. For example, a theorem like the proportionality theorem and its application Thales borrowed from them. The achievements of medicine were used by the authors of treatises of the ancient world. The techniques of the Greek physician in examining a man suffering from a misaligned jaw are similar to those of the Egyptian physician, which were described in the surgical papyrus of Edwin Smith. It is impossible not to mention a number of Egyptian borrowings in the Greek pharmacopoeia. The Egyptian recipe even penetrated medieval Arabic and European folk medicine.

In the era of Hellenism, a kind of center of science, culture and art was created here. The scientist Eratosthenes worked in this center, who first measured the arc of the meridian. Here Ptolemy compiled astronomical tables, which made it possible to determine the motion of the planets with high accuracy for that time.

The Coptic language (many words of which have been preserved since the time of the pharaohs, and in the alphabet of which there are seven demotic signs) can rightfully be called the heir to ancient Egyptian.

Conclusion

Over the course of more than four thousand years of history, the peoples of Ancient Egypt created a high and multifaceted culture that was of great importance for mankind. Due to geographical isolation, the Egyptian civilization was formed as an original historical phenomenon. The needs of production, socio-economic and cultural development led to the accumulation of the reality of knowledge - mathematical, astronomical, biological, medical. Achievements in the field of science have become one of the important reasons for the improvement of socio-economic relations and the state.

The dominance of religious ideology could not completely suppress a person's desire to objectively cognize the nature around him. In this regard, there is an idea of ​​“knowledge” as such, the high value of “knowledge”, which distinguishes a “knowing” person from all other people.

Science in ancient Egypt began to develop due to special natural conditions and geographical isolation, which excluded the borrowing by Egypt of the achievements of neighboring civilizations. The Egyptians had no one to learn from, they were the first to know the world.

Science focused on fighting nature and making life easier for the population. Its applied nature and close connection with religion can be considered specific features. Mathematics was used for calculations related to pressing problems, and medicine was closely associated with the cult of the dead. The scientific and natural ideas of the ancient Egyptians not only successfully served the ancient Egyptian society, but also had a positive impact on the development of science among European peoples.

List of used literature and sources

1.Avdiev V. History of the Ancient World.

2.Badak A.N., Voynich I.E., Volchek N.M. etc. World history. - Minsk: Literature, 1996.

.Lapis I.A. Into the depths of centuries. - Leningrad, 1961.

.Lapis I.A. Ancient world history. Ed. THEM. Dyakonova, V.D. Neronova, I.S. Sventsipka. Ed. 3rd, corrected and supplemented. M.: Nauka: The main edition of the eastern literature of the publishing house, 1989.

.Mathieu M.E. The Ancient East. - Moscow, 1953. Edited by Acad. V.V. Struve.

But also a lot of works of a scientific nature.

Of the sciences, mathematics was especially developed in Egypt. True, the numerical system of Egyptian mathematicians was rather cumbersome. No attempt was made to give the numbers a positional value.

The dash of the Egyptians always meant one, the bow always meant ten, the curly rope - a hundred, the lotus flower - a thousand. To write, for example, nine thousand, it was necessary to draw a lotus flower nine times in a row.

Ancient Egyptian scribe Maa-ni-amon. Hermitage

Despite all these difficulties and shortcomings, the ancient Egyptian scribes managed to solve complex problems. In geometry, the area of ​​the truncated pyramid and the ratio of the circumference to the diameter have already been calculated (the latter with an error of only two hundredths).

Egyptian astronomy also made great strides. The Egyptians observed the time of the appearance of Sirius in the sky, foreshadowing the flood of the Nile (of course, this coincidence was accidental). The ancient Egyptian calendar was solar. The year was divided into 12 months of 30 days each, and the month was divided into three decades. The extra five days were considered holidays and were not included in any month.

Egyptian medical papyri have also come down to us. Much of their recipes now seem naive. Medicines such as crushed donkey's hoof or "the milk of a woman who has given birth to a boy" are used. However, some scientific observations have accurately revealed the beneficial (or harmful) effect of certain herbs. There were also theoretical generalizations. There was already an idea of ​​the law of blood circulation. As for surgery, Egyptian eye doctors were especially famous, who in the 6th century. BC e. even attracted to the court of the Persian kings.

There were in ancient Egypt the beginnings of geographical science, where there was a desire for a known systematics. The earth was imagined as a rectangle with raised edges (mountains) and an ocean flowing around on all sides (the “Great Circle”). The front side of the Egyptians was considered the South, from where the Nile flows, the back side was the North (the islands of the Mediterranean and Aegean seas), the right side was the West (where the souls of the dead were supposed to dwell), and the left side was the East (“God’s Country”, i.e. Ra). All this testifies to the close connection between the rudiments of scientific knowledge and the religious, mythological perception of the world.

The peoples, according to the ideas of the ancient Egyptians, were divided by skin color and languages, as well as into the inhabitants of the Nile Valley, whose life depends on the beneficent river, and all the rest, who use water falling from heaven (precipitation).

Geographical maps of Ancient Egypt have been preserved (for example, a detailed map of the area of ​​gold mines in the Arabian Desert). The oldest chronicle in the world, covering more than five centuries, has come down to us. However, no broad historical generalizations were made in Egyptian science, and changes in the life of the state were explained by the will of the gods and the moral qualities of people.