I will solve the exam in biology on the mechanisms of evolution. Causes of biological progress and regression. Human races, their genetic relatedness

1.The first evolutionary theory was created J.B. Lamarck. He mistakenly considered the direct influence of the environment to be the main factor in evolution; inheritance of characteristics acquired by organisms under the influence of the environment. He considered the driving force of evolution to be “the desire of organisms for progress.”

Lamarck introduced the division of animals into vertebrates and invertebrates. The connecting link between them is lancelet.

2. Laid the foundations of scientific taxonomy C. Linnaeus. He introduced the binomial (double) name of species (Nr.: Apple tree). But Linnaeus' taxonomy was artificial. Modern taxonomy takes into account the signs of relatedness of species and is therefore called natural.

3. Evidence of evolution: 1) Paleontological (fossil remains) 2) Embryological: Karl Baer formulated law of germ similarity . Haeckel opened biogenetic law : Ontogenesis is a brief repetition of phylogeny. 3) Comparative anatomical (rudiments, atavisms, homologous and similar organs). Atavisms – tailed man, hairy man, multiple nipples. Rudiments – third century of man, appendix.

4. Malthus proved that species reproduce in a geometric progression, and the conditions for their existence only in an arithmetic progression. (This gives rise to a struggle for existence).

5.C. Darwin– creator of the foundations modern theory evolution organic world. He opened driving factors of evolution, formulated the principle of divergence of characteristics (divergence).

Driving factors of evolution: hereditary variability (mutations), struggle for existence (intra-, interspecific and with unfavorable conditions environment), natural selection (driving, stabilizing, disruptive), isolation (ecological, geographical), migration, population waves, genetic drift.

The main guiding factor of evolution is natural selection .

By the “struggle for existence,” Darwin understood all types of relationships between organisms, as well as between organisms and environmental conditions.

Inconsistency between the possibility of a species for unlimited reproduction and limited resources is the main reason for the struggle for existence. The intraspecific struggle is most intense, since individuals of the same species have all the same needs.

Evolutionary changes occurring at the population, intraspecific level are called microevolution. As a result of microevolution, new species are formed (speciation).

Forms of speciation: geographical and ecological.

Macroevolution is supraspecific evolution, leading to the formation of new genera, families, etc.

Macroevolution, like microevolution, is divergent in nature.

The phylogenetic series of horses was recreated by Kovalevsky.

The discovery and study of the lancelet proved the origin of vertebrates from invertebrates and their relationship.

Evolution results: diversity of species, speciation, fitness .

Genetic drift is a change in the frequency of a gene in a population due to random reasons.

Fluctuations in the number of individuals making up a population are called population waves.

As a result of population waves, rare genes can become common or disappear.

Adaptability, diversity of species, speciation are the result of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution. Any device this is the result of the driving forces of evolution (hereditary variability, struggle for existence, natural selection, isolation).

Mimicry is the imitation of a less protected organism of one species by a more protected organism of another species. (Example: some types of flies look like wasps)

All devices are relative in nature, i.e. they help the body survive only in these specific conditions.

Gene pool is the totality of all genes contained in a population or species.

The larger the offspring and the more often the change of generations occurs, the better the species adapts to changing environmental conditions.

6. Relatively isolated groups of individuals of the same species are called populations.

The existence of a species in the form of populations allows the species to adapt to life in different living conditions.

A population is the smallest subdivision of a species that changes over time. Therefore, a population represents an elementary unit of evolution. Darwin mistakenly considered the individual to be the elementary unit of evolution.

A population is simultaneously a unit of evolution, a structural unit of a species, and a unit of an ecosystem.

The idea that populations are saturated with recessive mutations was first expressed by S.S. Chetverikov.

7.Type criteria. There is no absolute criterion. The belonging of individuals to a particular species is determined by a set of criteria (morphological, physiological, genetic, historical, geographical, environmental). Food is an ecological criterion.

8.Biological progress characterized by an expansion of the range, an increase in the number of populations and individuals of the species. Biological progress can be achieved by all three main directions of evolution: aromorphoses, idioadaptations and general degenerations.

Biological regression characterized by a narrowing of the range, a decrease in the number of individuals and populations.

Aromorphoses– major evolutionary changes that lead to a general rise in the level of organization and increase the intensity of life activity. (Nr.: Appearance for the first time in the process of evolution of viviparity, constant body temperature, pulmonary respiration; in plants, the appearance of a flower, seed, vascular system etc.) Through aromorphosis, large systematic categories arise in the process of evolution, rank higher than the family.

Idiomatic adaptation– minor evolutionary changes that increase the adaptability of organisms to certain environmental conditions, but are not accompanied by changes in the basic features of the organization. (eg protective coloration of animals, adaptations to seed dispersal). Species, genera, families in the process of evolution arise through idioadaptation.

9.Similar organs that have different origins but perform same functions. (This is the result of convergence - convergence of features). Example: bird wings and insect wings.

Homologous organs have the same origin, but perform different functions. (This is the result of divergence - divergence of characteristics). Example: human hand, bird wings, mole burrowing limbs, seal flippers.

10. To which group of evidence of evolution do atavisms and rudiments belong? (embryonic, paleontological, comparative anatomical, biogeographic)

Insert into the text “Lamarckism” the missing terms from the proposed list, using numerical notations. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) in the table below. LAMARCHISM

Lamarckism is an evolutionary concept based on a theory put forward at the beginning of the 19th century by _________(A) in the treatise “Philosophy of Zoology”.

In a broad sense, Lamarckian theories include various evolutionary theories that arose in the 19th - first third of the 20th centuries, in which the internal desire for __________(B) is considered as the main ____________(B) force of evolution. As a rule, great importance is attached in such theories to the influence of __________ (D) organs on the evolutionary fate of organisms, since it is assumed that the consequences of exercise and lack of exercise can be transmitted through _________________ (D).

LIST OF TERMS:

1) stabilizing

2) driving

3) inheritance

4) exercise

5) progress

Explanation.

Lamarckism is an evolutionary concept based on a theory put forward at the beginning of the 19th century by Lamarck in his treatise “Philosophy of Zoology”.

In a broad sense, Lamarckian theories include various evolutionary theories that arose in the 19th - first third of the 20th centuries, in which the internal desire for progress is considered as the main driving force of evolution. As a rule, great importance is attached in such theories to the influence of organ exercise on the evolutionary fate of organisms, since it is assumed that the consequences of exercise and non-exercise can be inherited.

Answer: 62543.

Answer: 62543

Source: I WILL SOLVE OGE

Insert into the text “Darwinism” the missing terms from the proposed list, using numerical notations. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) in the table below.

DARWINISM

Darwinism - named after the English naturalist _________(A) - is a direction of evolutionary thought, whose adherents agree with Darwin’s basic ideas on the issue of evolution, according to which the main ___________(B) of evolution is _______________(C) selection. In a broad sense, it is often (and not entirely correctly) used to refer to evolutionary teaching or evolutionary biology in general. Darwinism is contrasted with the ideas of ____________ (D), who believed that the main driving force of evolution is the inherent desire of organisms to _____________ (D).

LIST OF TERMS:

1) property

3) perfection

4) artificial

5) natural

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Darwinism - named after the English naturalist Darwin - is a direction of evolutionary thought whose adherents agree with Darwin's basic ideas on the issue of evolution, according to which the main factor in evolution is natural selection. In a broad sense, it is often (and not entirely correctly) used to refer to evolutionary teaching or evolutionary biology in general. Darwinism is contrasted with the ideas of Lamarck, who believed that the main driving force of evolution is the inherent desire for perfection in organisms.

Answer: 82563.

Answer: 82563

Source: I WILL SOLVE OGE

1) theory of transformism

2) Lamarck's evolutionary theory

3) Darwin's evolutionary doctrine

4) the theory of creationism

5) synthetic theory of evolution

Explanation.

The theory of creationism - the theory of transformism - Lamarck's evolutionary theory - Darwin's evolutionary doctrine - synthetic theory of evolution. Transformism is the doctrine of continuous change in the species of the animal and plant kingdoms and the origin of the forms of the organic world from one or more simple forms.

Answer: 41235.

Establish a correspondence between the features of the action of the evolutionary factor and the factors for which these features are characteristic.

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Population waves: one of the sources of evolutionary material; represents fluctuations in population numbers and is random in nature. Natural selection: the action of a factor is directed; provides genotype selection; changes the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population.

Answer: 112212.

Note.

Population waves or waves of life (S.S. Chetverikov) are periodic or aperiodic fluctuations in the number of organisms in natural populations. This phenomenon applies to all types of animals and plants, as well as microorganisms. The reasons for fluctuations are often environmental in nature. Thus, the size of the populations of the “prey” (hare) increases as the pressure on them from the populations of the “predator” (lynx, fox, wolf) decreases. The increase in food resources noted in this case contributes to an increase in the number of predators, which, in turn, intensifies the extermination of the prey. Changes in the gene pools of populations occur both during the rise and fall of the population wave.

Guest 08.06.2014 20:32

The frequencies of alleles in the gene pool of a population change both population waves (indirectly, can lead to genetic drift) and natural selection (directively, leading to the formation of adaptations, etc.).

Guest 09.06.2014 00:19

It was incorrect to cite point “E”, because both population waves and natural selection change the frequency of alleles in a population, i.e. her gene pool. Population waves change the gene pool in an undirected way, due to genetic drift during population decline, for example. As a result, any alleles can be fixed, regardless of their adaptive value. Incl. and harmful. And natural selection promotes the accumulation of genes and gene complexes that ensure success in the struggle for existence, which leads to the emergence of adaptations, etc.

Alena Selezneva 13.06.2018 06:11

Population waves, just like natural selection, change the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of a population (point E), why do you think natural selection is the correct answer, please explain

Natalia Evgenievna Bashtannik

Because it's more complete.

Insert the missing terms from the proposed list into the text “Evolutionary Doctrine”, using numerical notations for this. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) in the table below.

EVOLUTIONARY TEACHING

The founder of modern evolutionary teaching was ________(A). Before him, ideas about the changeability of the world had already been expressed. However, it was Darwin who came up with the doctrine of ________(B) and the survival of the organisms most adapted to ________(C). Charles Darwin and at the same time Alfred Wallace explained the reasons for the emergence of ________ (D) the organic world.

LIST OF TERMS:

1) variety

2) C. Darwin

3) natural selection

4) fitness

5) creation of the world

6) environmental conditions

7) spontaneous generation

Write down the numbers in your answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

The founder of modern evolutionary teaching was Charles Darwin. Before him, ideas about the changeability of the world had already been expressed. However, it was Darwin who came up with the doctrine of natural selection and the survival of organisms most adapted to environmental conditions. Charles Darwin and at the same time Alfred Wallace explained the reasons for the emergence of diversity in the organic world.

Answer: 2361.

Answer: 2361

Source: I WILL SOLVE OGE

1. The first evolutionary concept belongs to Zh.B. Lamarck. 2. Lamarck first put forward the idea of ​​the variability of living nature and its natural development. 3. He was the first to recognize natural selection and the direct influence of the environment on the organism as the driving forces of evolution. 4. In the middle of the 19th century, the English scientist Charles Darwin created the theory of evolution, in which he called uncertain variability, the struggle for existence and the inheritance of acquired characteristics the driving forces of evolution. 5. Charles Darwin, in his teaching, argued that the formation of new species is based on the gradual accumulation of differences between individuals - the convergence of characteristics. 6. Charles Darwin considered the diversity of species and the relative fitness of organisms to be the results of evolution.

Explanation.

Errors are contained in sentences 3, 4, 5.

1) 3 - the theory of natural selection was created by Charles Darwin;

2) 4 - the idea of ​​inheritance of acquired characteristics belongs to J. B. Lamarck;

3) 5 - Divergence is the basis of evolutionary processes.

The accumulation of differences between individuals is not called convergence.

J.B. Lamarck in his teaching did not talk about the variability of living nature. He spoke about the variability of certain species, and a speculatively established variability. For which he was criticized by biologists of that time. The narrowness of his views and the paucity of his empirical base were even ridiculed among scientists.

It is necessary to make adjustments to the proposal so as not to confuse the decision makers. In fact - 4 out of six incorrect sentences

Natalia Evgenievna Bashtannik

It is possible, if you correct 4 sentences without making biological errors, it will be assessed 3 points

Select statements related to the synthetic theory of evolution.

1) Microevolution is a process occurring in populations.

2) There is a struggle for existence between organisms.

3) The driving forces of evolution are uncertain variability, natural selection, and the struggle for existence.

4) The main evolutionary directions are: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration.

5) Certain variability is not hereditary.

6) A species consists of populations.

Explanation.

The main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution can be expressed in general terms as follows:

The material for evolution is hereditary changes - mutations (usually genetic) and their combinations.

The driving forces of evolution, according to STE, include the mutation process, population waves, genetic drift, isolation and natural selection. All of them, with the exception of natural selection, act randomly, without direction.

The smallest unit of evolution is the population.

Evolution is in most cases divergent in nature, that is, one taxon can become the ancestor of several daughter taxa.

Evolution is gradual and long-term. Speciation as a stage of the evolutionary process is the sequential replacement of one temporary population by a series of subsequent temporary populations.

A species consists of many subordinate, morphologically, physiologically, ecologically, biochemically and genetically distinct, but not reproductively isolated units - subspecies and populations.

The species exists as a holistic and closed entity. The integrity of the species is maintained by migrations of individuals from one population to another, during which an exchange of alleles (“gene flow”) is observed,

Macroevolution at a higher level than the species (genus, family, order, class, etc.) follows the path of microevolution. According to the synthetic theory of evolution, there are no patterns of macroevolution that are different from microevolution. In other words, the evolution of groups of species of living organisms is characterized by the same prerequisites and driving forces as microevolution.

Any real (and not composite) taxon has a monophyletic origin. Evolution is undirected, that is, it does not move towards any final goal.

Correct statements: microevolution is a process occurring in populations; the main evolutionary directions (according to A.N. Severtsov) are: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration; a species consists of populations. Incorrect statements:

2) There is a struggle for existence between organisms - this is incorrect, because the struggle for existence can be both interspecific and intraspecific and with unfavorable conditions.

3) The driving forces of evolution are uncertain variability, natural selection, the struggle for existence - these are the driving forces of evolution according to Darwin.

5) Certain variability is not hereditary - Specific, or group, modification variability is variability that occurs under the influence of some environmental factor that acts equally on all individuals - the statement is not true, because it is not a factor of evolution.

Answer: 146.

Answer: 146

1) the emergence of organisms onto land

2) the emergence of photosynthesis

3) formation of an ozone screen

4) formation of coacervates in water

5) the emergence of cellular life forms

Explanation.

Evolutionary processes on Earth in chronological order: formation of coacervates in water → emergence of cellular life forms → emergence of photosynthesis → formation of the ozone screen → emergence of organisms onto land.

Answer: 45231.

Answer: 45231

Source: Demo version of the Unified State Exam 2015 in biology.

Natalia Evgenievna Bashtannik

Coacervate drops are clots similar to aqueous solutions gelatin. They are formed in concentrated solutions of proteins and nucleic acids. Coacervates are capable of adsorbing various substances. From solution they receive chemical compounds, which are transformed as a result of reactions taking place in coacervate droplets and are released into the environment.

Find errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are admitted, correct them.

According to the main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution: 1. The material for evolution is hereditary variability, that is, mutations and combinations of genes. 2. The driving forces of evolution are changes in the gene pool of the population and the emergence of adaptation of organisms to living conditions. 3. The guiding factor of evolution is natural selection, based on the preservation and accumulation of hereditary changes in the organism. 4. The smallest evolutionary unit is the species. 5. Evolution is gradual and long-term. 6. Speciation as a stage of evolution is called macroevolution.

Explanation.

Errors were made in the sentences:

1) 2 - Mutation process, combinative variability, population waves, natural selection - the driving forces of evolution.

2) 4 - The smallest evolutionary unit is a population.

3) 6 - Speciation as a stage of evolution is called microevolution.

Georgy Granin 16.03.2018 13:51

And you can correct the 2nd sentence as follows: 2. The driving forces of evolution are the struggle for existence, isolation, genetic drift, hereditary variability, population waves, natural selection.

Natalia Evgenievna Bashtannik

Find three errors in the given text. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which errors were made and correct them.

(1) Darwin identified three non-directional evolutionary factors: heredity, variability, and population waves. (2) Heredity determines the ability of organisms to pass on their characteristics to offspring.

(3) Variability determines the diversity of forms in a population. (4) As a result, all individuals have different fitness. (5) The fittest leave fewer offspring because they live longer. (6) As a result of natural selection, the offspring in each subsequent generation become increasingly adaptable to environmental conditions. (7) Mutations are also important; they always increase the adaptability of a population to environmental conditions.

Explanation.

1) 1 – evolutionary factors according to Darwin are heredity, variability and the struggle for existence;

2) 5 – the fittest live longer and leave more offspring;

3) 7 – mutations are positive, negative and neutral (mutations often have a negative effect)

(1) The synthetic theory of evolution states that species live in populations in which evolutionary processes begin. (2) It is in populations that the most intense struggle for existence is observed. (3) As a result of mutational variability, new characteristics gradually arise, including adaptations to environmental conditions - idioadaptations. (4) This process of gradual emergence and retention of new characters under the influence of natural selection, leading to the formation of new species, is called divergence. (5) The formation of new large taxa occurs through aromorphosis and degeneration, which also leads to the biological progress of organisms. (6) Thus, the population is the initial unit in which the main evolutionary processes occur - changes in the gene pool, the appearance of new characteristics, the emergence of adaptations.

Explanation.

It is necessary to select three sentences that indicate the driving forces of evolution. The main driving forces of evolution are hereditary variability, natural selection and the struggle for existence.

(2) It is in populations that the most intense struggle for existence is observed. (3) As a result of mutational variability, new characteristics gradually arise, including adaptations to environmental conditions - idioadaptations. (4) This process of gradual emergence and retention of new characters under the influence of natural selection, leading to the formation of new species, is called divergence.

Answer: 234.

Answer: 234

1) cytology

2) evolutionary doctrine

3) ecology

4) taxonomy

Explanation.

A - the science of the cell, ecology - the science of the relationships of organisms with the environment, systematics - the science of classifying organisms.

Answer: 2

Explanation.

1) Approved and proven historical development wildlife,

2) variability of species,

3) the common origin of living organisms.

Section: Basics evolutionary doctrine

Type, its criteria. A population is a structural unit of a species and an elementary unit of evolution. Microevolution. Formation of new species. Methods of speciation.

History of evolutionary ideas. Charles Darwin's doctrine of the driving forces of evolution. Synthetic theory of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution. Forms of natural selection, types of struggle for existence. Interrelation of the driving forces of evolution. The creative role of natural selection in evolution.

Results of evolution: adaptability of organisms to their environment, diversity of species. Evidence of the evolution of living nature.

Macroevolution. Forms of evolution (divergence, convergence, parallelism). Directions and paths of evolution: biological progress and regression, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration. Causes of biological progress and regression. Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth. Evolution of the organic world. Basic aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals.

Human Origins. Man as a species, his place in the system of the organic world. Driving forces and stages of human evolution. Human races, their genetic relatedness. Biosocial nature of man. Social and natural environment, human adaptation to it.

Evolutionary doctrine

Evolutionary doctrine (theory of evolution)- a science that studies the historical development of life: causes, patterns and mechanisms. There are micro- and macroevolution.

Microevolution- evolutionary processes at the population level, leading to the formation of new species.

Macroevolution- evolution of supraspecific taxa, as a result of which larger systematic groups are formed. They are based on the same principles and mechanisms.

Development of evolutionary ideas

Heraclitus, Empidocles, Democritus, Lucretius, Hippocrates, Aristotle and other ancient philosophers formulated the first ideas about the development of living nature.
Carl Linnaeus believed in the creation of nature by God and the constancy of species, but allowed the possibility of the emergence of new species through crossing or under the influence of environmental conditions. In the book “The System of Nature,” C. Linnaeus substantiated the species as a universal unit and the basic form of existence of living things; assigned a double designation to each species of animal and plant, where the noun is the name of the genus, the adjective is the name of the species (for example, Homo sapiens); described a huge number of plants and animals; developed the basic principles of taxonomy of plants and animals and created their first classification.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck created the first holistic evolutionary teaching. In his work “Philosophy of Zoology” (1809), he identified the main direction of the evolutionary process - the gradual complication of organization from lower to higher forms. He also developed a hypothesis about the natural origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched to a terrestrial lifestyle. Lamarck considered the driving force of evolution to be the desire of organisms for perfection and argued for the inheritance of acquired characteristics. That is, organs necessary in new conditions develop as a result of exercise (giraffe’s neck), and unnecessary organs atrophy due to lack of exercise (mole’s eyes). However, Lamarck was unable to reveal the mechanisms of the evolutionary process. His hypothesis about the inheritance of acquired characteristics turned out to be untenable, and his statement about the internal desire of organisms for improvement was unscientific.
Charles Darwin created an evolutionary theory based on the concepts of the struggle for existence and natural selection. The prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin were the following: the accumulation by that time of rich material on paleontology, geography, geology, biology; selection development; advances in taxonomy; emergence of cell theory; the scientist’s own observations during a circumnavigation of the world on the Beagle. Charles Darwin outlined his evolutionary ideas in a number of works: “The Origin of Species by Natural Selection”, “Changes in Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants under the Influence of Domestication”, “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection”, etc.

Darwin's teaching boils down to this:

• each individual of a particular species has individuality (variability);
• Personality traits (although not all) can be inherited (heredity);
• individuals produce more offspring than survive to puberty and the beginning of reproduction, that is, in nature there is a struggle for existence;
• the advantage in the struggle for existence remains with the most adapted individuals, who have a greater chance of leaving behind offspring (natural selection);
• As a result of natural selection, the levels of organization of life gradually become more complex and species emerge.

Factors of evolution according to Charles Darwin- This

• heredity,
• variability,
• struggle for existence,
• natural selection.

Heredity - the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics from generation to generation (features of structure, development, function).
Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics.
Struggle for existence - the whole complex of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions: with inanimate nature (abiotic factors) and with other organisms (biotic factors). The struggle for existence is not a “struggle” in the literal sense of the word; in fact, it is a survival strategy and a way of existing for an organism. There are intraspecific struggles, interspecific struggles and struggles against unfavorable environmental factors. Intraspecific struggle- fight between individuals of the same population. It is always very stressful, since individuals of the same species need the same resources. Interspecies fight- struggle between individuals of populations different types. It occurs when species compete for the same resources or when they are connected by predator-prey relationships. Struggle with unfavorable abiotic environmental factors especially manifests itself when environmental conditions deteriorate; intensifies intraspecific struggle. In the struggle for existence, the individuals most adapted to the given living conditions are identified. The struggle for existence leads to natural selection.
Natural selection- a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with hereditary changes that are useful under given conditions survive and leave behind offspring.

All biological and many other natural sciences were restructured on the basis of Darwinism.
Currently the most generally accepted is synthetic theory of evolution (STE). Comparative characteristics The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and STE are given in the table.

Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and the synthetic theory of evolution (STE)

The emergence of devices. Each adaptation is developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection over a series of generations. Natural selection supports only expedient adaptations that help an organism survive and produce offspring.
The adaptability of organisms to the environment is not absolute, but relative, since environmental conditions can change. Many facts prove this. For example, fish are perfectly adapted to an aquatic environment, but all these adaptations are completely unsuitable for other habitats. Moths collect nectar from light-colored flowers, which are clearly visible at night, but often fly into the fire and die.

Elementary factors of evolution- factors that change the frequency of alleles and genotypes in a population (the genetic structure of the population).

There are several basic elementary factors of evolution:
mutation process;
population waves and genetic drift;
insulation;
natural selection.

Mutational and combinative variability.

Mutation process leads to the emergence of new alleles (or genes) and their combinations as a result of mutations. As a result of mutation, a transition of a gene from one allelic state to another (A→a) or a change in the gene in general (A→C) is possible. The mutation process, due to the randomness of mutations, has no direction and, without the participation of other evolutionary factors, cannot direct changes in the natural population. It only supplies elementary evolutionary material for natural selection. Recessive mutations in the heterozygous state constitute a hidden reserve of variability that can be used by natural selection when conditions of existence change.
Combinative variability arises as a result of the formation in descendants of new combinations of already existing genes inherited from their parents. The sources of combinative variability are the crossing of chromosomes (recombination), random divergence of homologous chromosomes in meiosis, and random combination of gametes during fertilization.

Population waves and genetic drift.

Population waves(waves of life) - periodic and non-periodic fluctuations in population size, both upward and downward. The causes of population waves can be periodic changes in environmental environmental factors (seasonal fluctuations in temperature, humidity, etc.), non-periodic changes (natural disasters), or the colonization of new territories by a species (accompanied by a sharp outbreak in numbers).
Population waves act as an evolutionary factor in small populations where genetic drift may occur. Genetic drift- random non-directional change in allele and genotype frequencies in populations. In small populations, the action of random processes leads to noticeable consequences. If the population is small in size, then as a result of random events, some individuals, regardless of their genetic constitution, may or may not leave offspring; as a result, the frequencies of some alleles can change dramatically over one or several generations. Thus, with a sharp reduction in population size (for example, due to seasonal fluctuations, reduction in food resources, fire, etc.), among the few surviving individuals there may be rare genotypes. If in the future the number is restored due to these individuals, this will lead to a random change in allele frequencies in the gene pool of the population. Thus, population waves are a supplier of evolutionary material.
Insulation is caused by the emergence of various factors that prevent free crossing. The exchange of genetic information between the resulting populations ceases, as a result of which the initial differences in the gene pools of these populations increase and become fixed. Isolated populations can undergo various evolutionary changes and gradually turn into different species.
There are spatial and biological isolation. Spatial (geographical) isolation associated with geographical obstacles (water barriers, mountains, deserts, etc.), and for sedentary populations, simply with long distances. Biological isolation is caused by the impossibility of mating and fertilization (due to changes in the timing of reproduction, structure or other factors that prevent crossing), death of zygotes (due to biochemical differences in gametes), sterility of the offspring (as a result of impaired chromosome conjugation during gametogenesis).
The evolutionary significance of isolation is that it perpetuates and enhances genetic differences between populations.
Natural selection. Changes in the frequencies of genes and genotypes caused by the evolutionary factors discussed above are random and non-directional. The guiding factor of evolution is natural selection.

Natural selection- a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with properties beneficial to the population survive and leave behind offspring.

Selection operates in populations; its objects are the phenotypes of individual individuals. However, selection based on phenotypes is a selection of genotypes, since it is not traits, but genes that are passed on to descendants. As a result, in a population there is an increase in the relative number of individuals possessing a certain property or quality. Thus, natural selection is the process of differential (selective) reproduction of genotypes.
Not only properties that increase the likelihood of leaving offspring are subject to selection, but also traits that are not directly related to reproduction. In some cases, selection may be aimed at creating mutual adaptations of species to each other (plant flowers and insects visiting them). Characters can also be created that are harmful to an individual, but ensure the survival of the species as a whole (a bee that stings dies, but by attacking an enemy, it saves the family). In general, selection plays a creative role in nature, since from undirected hereditary changes those that can lead to the formation of new groups of individuals that are more perfect in given conditions of existence are fixed.
There are three main forms of natural selection: stabilizing, driving and disruptive (disruptive) (table).

Forms of natural selection

A Brief History of the Evolution of the Organic World

The age of the Earth is about 4.6 billion years. Life on Earth originated in the ocean more than 3.5 billion years ago.
Short story development of the organic world is presented in the table. The phylogeny of the main groups of organisms is shown in the figure.
The history of the development of life on Earth is studied from the fossil remains of organisms or traces of their vital activity. They are found in rocks of different ages.
The geochronological scale of Earth's history is divided into eras and periods.

Geochronological scale and history of the development of living organisms

The first task corresponds to the first section in the codifier, which can be easily found on the FIPI website.

The section is called “Biology as a Science. Methods of scientific knowledge". What does this mean? There are no specifics here, so, in fact, he can include anything.

In the codifier you can find a list of content elements tested on the Unified State Exam. That is, everything you need to know to successfully complete the task is listed there. For correct execution you can get 1 point.

We present them below for your reference:

1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of knowing living nature.
2. The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world.
3. Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismal, population-species, biogeocenotic, biosphere.
4. Biological systems. General signs biological systems: cellular structure, features chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution.

It looks very complicated and unclear, however, during the preparation process you will still become familiar with all these topics; they do not need to be taught for a separate task.

Analysis of typical tasks No. 1 of the Unified State Exam in biology

Having looked through all the tasks offered by the open bank, you can distinguish two classifications of tasks: by thematic section and by the form of the question.

By thematic section

If you arrange them in order from most to least, you get:

• Botany
• human anatomy
• Cytology
• General biology
• Genetics
• Evolution

Let's look at examples of tasks for each section.

Botany

Consider the proposed structure of the organs of a flowering plant. Write down the missing term in your answer, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

The stem, buds and leaves together make up the above-ground part of the plant - the shoot

Answer: escape.

human anatomy

Consider the proposed skeletal structure diagram upper limb. Write down the missing term in your answer, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

The free upper limb includes the hand. If you don’t go into details about the bones that make it up yet, then you just need to remember three sections: shoulder, forearm, hand.

The shoulder begins at the shoulder joint and ends at the elbow joint.

The forearm, accordingly, should end with the elbow, and start from the wrist inclusive.

The hand is the bones that make up the palm and phalanges of the fingers.

Answer: shoulder.

Cytology

First, you need to familiarize yourself with the concept of “cytology” in order to understand what we're talking about.

Cytology is a branch of biology that studies living cells, their organelles, their structure, functioning, processes of cell reproduction, aging and death. The terms cell biology and cell biology are also used.

The word “cytology” includes two roots from the Greek language: “cytos” - cell, “logos” - science, as in biology - “bio” - living, “logos” - science. Knowing the roots, you can easily assemble a definition.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for organelles. Write down the missing term in your answer, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

From this diagram it becomes clear that organelles are divided into three types according to the number of membranes. Here, only one window is allocated for each type, but this does not mean that only one organelle corresponds to each type. In addition, plant and animal cells have differences in cell structure.

Plants, unlike animals, have:

• Cellulose cell wall
• Chloroplasts necessary for photosynthesis
• Large digestive vacuole. The older the cell, the larger the vacuole

Organelles are divided according to the number of membranes:

• Single-membrane organelles: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes.
• Double-membrane organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, plastids (leukoplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts).
• Non-membrane organelles: ribosomes, centrioles, nucleolus.

In the diagram, the question is about double-membrane organelles. We know that mitochondria and plastids are double-membrane. We reason: there is only one pass, but two options. It's not just like that. You need to re-read the question carefully. There are two types of cells, but we are not told which one we are talking about, which means the answer must be universal. Plastids are characteristic only of plant cells, therefore, mitochondria remain.

Answer: mitochondria, or mitochondrion.

(The open jar shows both options)

Genetics

Again, let's look at the definition:

Genetics is the science of the laws of heredity and variability.

Let's break the definition down into definitions:

Heredity-Complexity natural properties organism received from parents and predecessors.

Variability is the variety of characteristics among representatives of a given species, as well as the ability of descendants to acquire differences from their parent forms.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for types of variability. Write down the missing term in your answer, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

Since the concept of variability includes the property of acquiring differences from parental forms, this gives us the term “heredity.” U healthy person 46 chromosomes. 23 come from mom, 23 from dad. This means that a child is a combination of traits acquired from his parents, moreover, mom and dad also carry the traits of their parents in their genetic code. During the rearrangements, some appear in the offspring, while others can simply be transferred to the genome. Those that have appeared are dominant, and those that are simply written in the genome are recessive. Such variability does not bring about major changes against the background of the whole species.

Answer: combinative.

Evolution

Evolution in biology is the irreversible historical development of living nature.

It is aimed at the survival of the species. One should not think that evolution is only a complication of the organism; some species have taken the path of degeneration, that is, simplification, in order to survive.

Biological regression obviously has no options. Those who came to regression were unable to adapt to changing environmental conditions, which means they became extinct. Biologists know that it is not the fittest that survives, but the fittest.

Biological progress has three paths, let's start with a simple one:

Adaptation is the main goal. Another way to say “adapt” is “adapt.”

The next path is idioadaptation.

Idioadaptation is the acquisition of useful characteristics for life.

Or in scientific terms: Idioadaptation is a direction of evolution consisting in the acquisition of new characteristics while maintaining the level of organization of ancestral forms.

Everyone knows what an anteater looks like. He has an elongated muzzle, and all this is needed in order to get his food - small insects. This change in the shape of the muzzle did not make fundamental changes in the life of anteaters, but it became more convenient for them to eat than their ancestors with a less elongated muzzle.

Aromorphosis is the emergence during evolution of characteristics that significantly increase the level of organization of living organisms.

For example, the emergence of angiosperms greatly increased survival rates.

Answer: idioadaptation.

So, we have analyzed one example of tasks from different sections asked in the first task.

Second classification: by form the question asked. Although in the first task there are diagrams everywhere, the question can still be posed in different ways.

Question forms

1.Missed term in the diagram

You just need to enter the term missing in the diagram, as in the tasks above. These are the majority of questions.

Consider the proposed scheme of evolutionary directions. Write down the missing term in your answer, indicated by a question mark in the diagram.

We discussed this option above, so we are writing the answer right away.

Answer: idioadaptation.

2. Answer to the question from the diagram

The diagram is complete, based on your knowledge you need to answer the question according to the diagram.

Look at the picture with examples of chromosomal mutations. The number 3 on it indicates a chromosomal rearrangement... (write down the term in your answer)

There are several types of chromosomal rearrangements that you need to know:

Duplication is a type of chromosomal rearrangement in which a section of a chromosome is doubled.

Deletions are the loss of a section of a chromosome.

Inversion is a change in the structure of a chromosome caused by a 180° rotation of one of its internal sections.

Translocation is the transfer of a section of a chromosome to another.

The third picture clearly shows that there are more chromosome sections. The first four sections of the chromosome doubled, there were 9 of them, instead of 5, as before. This means that a part of the chromosome has been duplicated.

Answer: duplication.

3. Answer to the question regarding the circuit part

The diagram is complete, but I have a question regarding some part of it:

Consider the proposed reaction scheme between amino acids. Write down in your answer the concept denoting the name of the chemical bond marked in the diagram with a question mark.

This diagram shows the reaction between two amino acids, as is known from the question. Peptide bonds act between them. You will become more familiar with them when studying DNA and RNA.

A peptide bond is a chemical bond formed between two molecules as a result of a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one molecule and the amino group (-NH2) of another molecule, releasing one molecule of water (H2O).

Answer: peptide, or peptide bond.

According to FIPI, the first task is basic, so it does not pose any particular difficulty for the graduate. It covers a lot of topics, but is rather superficial. After studying all the topics, it is better to look through all the available diagrams for this task, since the answer is not always obvious. And do not forget to read the question carefully, it is not always the same.