What is aesthetic feeling. Types of Feelings: Emotions that guide our lives. Feelings of guilt and shame

Turning to the presentation of the psychology of aesthetic feeling, I would like to note first of all that at present interest in aesthetics is growing more and more, especially in comparison with the indifferent and even often hostile attitude that was so common until recently. In our time, on the contrary, aesthetic feelings and aesthetic needs are often brought to the fore, there is an increased interest in art in society, whole worldviews arise, which are based on an aesthetic worldview, ideals are created on the basis of aesthetic criteria, and thus Thus, the sense of beauty is regarded as the main, or at least one of the main springs driving the development of mankind. In upbringing, aesthetic elements have again come to the fore in recent times. They point out that both at school and in the life of a child, not the routinely monotonous atmosphere of a modern school with its corridors and empty square classrooms should be surrounded, but works of art, elegant, albeit simple furnishings, in general, such an environment that would develop in him from a young age the joy of life and the feeling of beauty. All this prompts me to dwell on the psychology of aesthetic feeling in more detail.

Like other higher feelings, the aesthetic sense is complex: it includes a number of different elements. Let's start with the simplest ones.

If we analyze our aesthetic experiences, we will very often come across the fact that individual sensations, taken by themselves, give us pleasure. Pam likes the bright or delicate colors in the picture, the soft sound of the French horn, the clear sound of the human voice. You left the room on a sunny summer day: the blue color of the sky, the bright green foliage of trees, the chirping of birds, the aroma of air filled with the smell of herbs, all these sensations - visual, auditory and olfactory - you like, are part of the overall aesthetic experience . Why do we like looking at velvet and marble? Because the sight of them arouses in us the memory of the sensation that we got when we ran our hands over soft velvet and smooth marble. Thus, although visual and auditory sensations play a predominant role in aesthetic experiences, nevertheless, other kinds of sensations are also of no small importance here. Interesting in this respect is the statement made by the deaf-blind girl Helen Keller. Deprived of sight and hearing from birth, and therefore unable to learn speech, she nevertheless learned to read, took a course at a secondary school, even graduated from a university, and all this with the help of touch alone. E. Keller's aesthetic sense is also based on tactile and partly on olfactory sensations: she says that, feeling the statuette of Venus de Milo, she experienced extreme pleasure. In normal people, who have all the senses, olfactory and gustatory sensations are, of course, much less aesthetic value. Gastronomy and perfumery cannot be called independent arts. But this does not prevent tactile, olfactory and gustatory sensations from playing an important auxiliary role, entering into a complex aesthetic experience as additional elements.

A much more significant role is played in works of art by combinations of different sensations and the relationship between different kinds of sensations. Any ornament in which ordinary colors - red, yellow, green and blue - and ordinary lines - straight, broken, curves - are intertwined and combined into a complex combination, can make a charming impression, much stronger than these colors and lines taken separately.

The pleasantness or unpleasantness of individual sensations and their simplest combinations depends largely on purely physiological conditions. Take for example the aesthetic impression produced by various kinds of lines.

The audience is offered two lines drawn on the table - a broken line and a curve, similar in their general appearance. From the survey, it turns out that the majority likes the curve.

Generally speaking, curved lines, rounded shapes usually appeal to us more than broken, angular ones. The reason, perhaps, lies in the fact that our members move in a circle, thanks to the convex-concave arrangement of the joints. In order to make a broken movement, you need to use a certain effort, unusual and therefore unpleasant. On the other hand, other associative elements can also be mixed in here, which enhance or, conversely, weaken this impression. So, for example, the rounded forms of the human body are liked more than the bony ones, also because the idea of ​​health is connected with roundness. Sometimes associative factors get mixed up, and then we start to like straight lines (a wide, straight alley), sharp corners(bell tower spire), etc.

Further, the physical and physiological conditions underlying the pleasantness of sound intervals and musical chords are known: those intervals in which the numbers of vibrations of tones relate to each other as simple numbers (1:2, 2:3, etc.) please us, and vice versa.

Of great importance is also a certain correctness or order (sometimes, it is true, very peculiar) in the combination of external impressions. In visual perceptions, we like symmetry: impressions are located in right order, in such a way that to the right and to the left we have the same groups. This also includes the pleasure of rhythm, that is, from correctly, evenly alternating impressions, whatever they may be in their content: auditory - in musical works, tactile - in the rhythmic movements of dance or running, visual - when you look at a dancing or smoothly moving person, etc. Zeising made a number of measurements on various works of art, on architectural monuments, sculptural works, etc., and he established that in the vast majority of cases the beauty of a known structure or the harmonic dimensions of a figure are determined by the mathematical relationships of the parts in these objects. A particularly important role is played here by the so-called rule of golden division, according to which the whole should be related to the greater part in the same way as the greater part is related to the smaller. Undoubtedly, many relationships between the elements that make up aesthetic experiences are subject to a certain mathematically formulated regularity, and it is very possible that in time it will be possible to find a more general law that combines all these separate types of aesthetic experiences into one common whole.

Comparing the above examples of aesthetic stimuli together, we can deduce one principle that plays a very important role in aesthetics: we like unity in diversity. Indeed, in symmetry, two different sides of an object are united by their identical relation to the midline; in rhythm, unification is achieved by the uniformly repeating interval between individual impressions; in the rule of golden division, heterogeneous parts are also united due to a certain certain relationship to each other. This principle appears even more clearly in complex aesthetic experiences, which will be discussed further.

However, pleasant sensations and their harmonic combinations do not yet exhaust the feeling of beauty. The best proof of this is that often the ugly is included in works of art. It suffices to recall the ugly masks that adorn our buildings (how beautiful are the hideous chimeras in Notre Dame Cathedral!), to recall the tragic with its sufferings, which often give rise to the creation of high works of art, to recall what Tolstoy says about fashionable pictures, undoubtedly beautiful, but which no one will not be called works of art, etc. The reason is that in most aesthetic impressions, along with the objective factors that I have just talked about and which determine pleasant sensations and combinations of these sensations, we also have to note others - associative, or subjective factors, to which we now turn.

Take, for example, the pleasant impression produced by the sight of an orange. Do you like it yellow, round shape, pleasant smell. But to all this, there is also a no less pleasant memory of his taste. Finally, an orange can make you think of the region where it grew, and when you imagine Italy with its blue skies, groves, sea, etc., then these ideas merge with the sight of an orange in front of your eyes, into one common whole. When we see an old castle, its forms may not be picturesque, not elegant, its smell - rot and destruction - can be directly unpleasant, and yet the general appearance of the castle can cause artistic pleasure, due to the fact that external impressions (sensations and their combinations) are joined by memories of the past of this castle, heroic deeds and tragic incidents that he witnessed; all this together, shrouded in that haze of dreaminess that is characteristic of memories of the past, gives a complex aesthetic experience, closely connected with the view of the castle that aroused all these poetic memories.

The question now is how great should be the role of this associative factor in aesthetic feelings, and are we not embarking on the wrong path here? Indeed, if we go further along this path, we can come to the conclusion that aesthetic pleasures are caused not by the form of works of art, but by the meaning and content that is embedded in them. In the end, we will come to a utilitarian view of art, according to which the meaning of a work of art lies only in the benefit that it can bring to humanity, and, of course, this benefit can be considered in the most diverse ways, according to different kinds of worldviews. Thus, the utilitarians of the sixties recognized the significance of works of art only in so far as they could contribute to the improvement of social relations. Tolstoy appreciates a work of art only when it evokes a feeling of love for one's neighbors and for God with special strength and brightness; the specifically aesthetic aspects of the work are relegated here to the background and, at best, are reduced to certain forms, thanks to which it is especially convenient to arouse certain feelings in people. According to Tolstoy, artistic talent comes down to the ability to excite in others the mood that the artist himself in this moment is experiencing, or as he says, infecting another with his own feeling and mood; once this goal has been achieved, nothing more is required of the work of art on the part of the form.

With this view, however, one can hardly agree. Analyzing works of art and the emotions they arouse, one can note in them such aspects that are inherent in the aesthetic feeling in itself and cannot be reduced to other feelings and other secondary goals. Here, first of all, it is necessary to note the very principle that I have already pointed out when speaking about elementary constituent parts aesthetic feeling, namely unity in diversity, the harmony of parts united into one common whole. This principle can be modified, or rather extended, to include harmony between form and content, or correspondence between end and means. When a poem is too long, when an artist uses too strong means where the effect could be achieved by simpler methods, you say that the work is not artistic. When a work of art does not correspond to its intended purpose, for example, a person builds a country house, but meanwhile gives it such a size and massiveness that does not correspond to country needs, then again you find it anti-artistic that there is no correspondence between the main purpose of the object and those means that used to achieve this. When too bulky, thick, heavy columns support a light canopy or a thin, slender colonnade carries an unbearable load, then here too you get the impression of unartism. Thus, even in more complex works of art, you encounter the same law of unity and proportion that has already been encountered at more elementary levels.

The correspondence between end and means makes us feel, when contemplating a work of art, the impression of expediency, and, however, this expediency is of a completely peculiar character: any secondary end is often completely absent, the work of art is already an end in itself. Therefore, it is often said that the aesthetic feeling is inherent in "expediency without consciousness of the goal." In this, the aesthetic feeling differs, for example, from volitional actions, in which a person always strives for something, tries to achieve something. True, works of art can also serve social purposes, because in our life everything is so intertwined that individual aspects of our psyche are in close connection with other aspects, but aesthetic feelings cannot be completely reduced to other feelings, completely denying their independent significance.

A special form of experience is represented by higher feelings, which contain all the richness of truly human relationships.

Depending on the subject area to which they refer, feelings are divided into moral, aesthetic, intellectual.

1. Moral, or moral feelings.

These are the feelings experienced by people when they perceive the phenomena of reality and compare these phenomena with the norms developed by society. The manifestation of these feelings suggests that a person has learned the moral norms and rules of behavior in the society in which he lives. Moral norms are formed and changed in the process of the historical development of society, depending on its traditions, customs, religion, dominant ideology, etc. The actions and deeds of people that correspond to the views on morality in a given society are considered moral, ethical; actions that do not correspond to these views are considered immoral, immoral.

For example, moral feelings include a sense of duty, humanity, benevolence, love, friendship, patriotism, sympathy, etc. Greed, selfishness, cruelty, etc. can be attributed to immoral feelings.

It should be noted that in different societies these feelings may have some differences in content.

2. Moral and political feelings.

This group of feelings is manifested in emotional attitudes towards various public institutions and organizations, as well as towards the state as a whole. One of the most important features of moral and political feelings is their effective nature. They can act as motivating forces of heroic deeds and deeds. Therefore, one of the tasks of any state system has always been and remains the formation of such moral and political feelings as patriotism, love for the Motherland, etc.

3. Intelligent the senses .

Intellectual feelings are called experiences that arise in the process of human cognitive activity. The most typical situation that generates intellectual feelings is a problem situation. Success or failure, ease or difficulty of mental activity evoke a whole range of experiences in a person. Intellectual feelings not only accompany the cognitive activity of a person, but also stimulate, enhance it, affect the speed and productivity of thinking, the content and accuracy of the knowledge gained. The existence of intellectual feelings - surprise, curiosity, curiosity, a feeling of joy about the discovery made, a feeling of doubt about the correctness of the decision, a feeling of confidence in the correctness of the proof - is a clear evidence of the relationship between intellectual and emotional processes. At the same time, feelings act as a kind of regulator of mental activity.

4. Aesthetic feelings.

This is the emotional attitude of a person to the beautiful in nature, in people's lives and in art. Observing the objects and phenomena of reality around us, a person can experience a special feeling of admiration for their beauty. A person experiences especially deep feelings when perceiving works of fiction, musical, visual, dramatic and other types of art. This is due to the fact that both moral and intellectual feelings are specifically intertwined in them. Aesthetic attitude is manifested through different feelings - delight, joy, contempt, disgust, longing, suffering, etc.

It should be noted that the considered division of feelings is rather conditional. Usually, the feelings experienced by a person are so complex and multifaceted that it is difficult to attribute them to any one category.

Many authors refer to the highest manifestation of feelings passion - another type of complex, qualitatively peculiar and found only in humans emotional states. Passion is a fusion of emotions, motives, feelings, concentrated around a certain type of activity or subject. S. L. Rubinshtein wrote that “passion is always expressed in concentration, concentration of thoughts and forces, their focus on a single goal ... Passion means impulse, passion, orientation of all aspirations and forces of the individual in a single direction, focusing them on a single goal” .

Friendship

Elective attachments find their most vivid embodiment in the phenomenon of friendship. J.-J. Rousseau wrote that "the first feeling to which a carefully brought up young man is susceptible is not love, but friendship." K.K. Platonov considers friendship as a complex moral feeling, the structure of which includes: the need to communicate with the subject of friendship, reinforced by habit, causing emotion satisfaction in communication; memories of joint activities with him and its results; joint empathy, former, existing and possible; emotional memory; call of Duty; fear of loss; a prestigious (usually idealized) assessment of him. According to Platonov, the feeling of friendship for an object of the opposite sex is included in the feeling of sexual love, but may not be associated with it.

It should be emphasized that as one of the types of attraction, friendship has specificity. If sympathy and love can be one-sided, then friendship cannot be. She assumes interpersonal attraction, that is, the manifestation of friendly feelings on both sides. Only in this case, friendship can fulfill the functions of satisfying emotional needs, mutual knowledge, social interaction and dialogue of individuals, which takes on the character personal (intimate and trusting) relationships. In addition, friendship, in comparison with sympathy, attraction, love, has a more conscious, pragmatic character.

M. Argyle notes that friendship in the hierarchy of human values ​​occupies a higher place than work and leisure, but inferior to marriage or family life. True, in different age groups, this ratio may vary. It is most important for young people, from adolescence to marriage. Friendship becomes highly significant again in old age, when people retire or lose loved ones. Between these ages, friendship is less important than work and family.

reasons for friendship. M. Argyle notes three reasons why friendly relations are established:

1) the need for financial assistance and information, although friends provide it to a lesser extent than family or colleagues;

2) the need for social support in the form of advice, sympathy, confidential communication (for some married women friends in this respect are more important than husbands);

3) joint activities, common games, common interests.

I.S. Kohn cites as such reasons: needs the subject, prompting him to choose one or another partner; partner properties, stimulating interest or sympathy for him; features of the interaction process, conducive to the emergence and development of paired relationships; objective conditions such interaction (for example, belonging to a common social circle, group solidarity).

According to Argyle, women have closer friendships than men, are more self-disclosing, and have more intimate conversations. Men are more inclined to joint activities and joint games with friends.

Criteria for choosing friends. In many works, the question is discussed - on what grounds (by similarity or difference) friends are chosen. I.S. Kohn believes that before resolving this issue, it is necessary to clarify a number of circumstances.

First, what class of similarities are we talking about (sex, age, temperament, etc.). Second, the degree of perceived similarity (full or limited). Thirdly, the meaning and meaning of this similarity for the personality itself. Fourth, the volume, the breadth of the range of similarities. The similarity of friends may be limited to one particular characteristic, or it may manifest itself in many. The definition of similarity or dissimilarity also largely depends on how a person imagines himself and his friends and what they really are.

Numerous socio-psychological studies show that similarity orientation in social attitudes clearly prevails over the orientation towards complementarity. The vast majority of people prefer to be friends with people of their age, gender, social status, education, etc. It is also desirable to have similar basic values ​​and interests. True, when it is not about social attitudes and demographic characteristics, the results obtained are not so unambiguous.

Often people who are completely different in mental makeup are friends. An open and impulsive person can choose a closed and reserved person as a friend. The relationship between such friends gives each of them the maximum opportunity for self-expression with a minimum of rivalry; at the same time, together they make a couple with a greater variety of personality traits than either individually. However, friends are rarely the exact opposite of each other. Friendship couples that have existed for a long time are usually characterized by the presence of common values, attitudes, hopes and opinions both about each other and about other people.

Rules for the behavior of friends. M. Argyle and M. Henderson established general rules of conduct, which are considered the most important for the continuation of friendly relations and non-compliance with which leads to their break, and divided them into four groups.

Exchange:

- share news about your successes;

Show emotional support;

Volunteer to help in case of need;

Try to make your friend feel good in your company;

Return debts and rendered services.*

Intimacy:

Confidence in another and trust in him.

Relationship with third parties:

- protect a friend in his absence;

Be tolerant of the rest of his friends*;

Do not criticize a friend in public**;

Keep trusted secrets**;

Do not be jealous or criticize other personal relationships of the other.**

Coordination:

- do not be intrusive, do not teach *;

Respect the friend's inner peace and autonomy.**

The most important are the six rules that are not marked with asterisks, as they meet all four criteria. Rules marked with one asterisk meet three criteria, but do not distinguish close friends from less intimate ones. They are important for normal levels of friendship, but can be violated in especially close relationships: close friends are not considered favors, forgive intolerance towards mutual acquaintances, and even some importunity. Rules marked with two asterisks meet two criteria. They are considered important and their violation can lead to the termination of friendship, but the assessment of the depth of friendships does not depend on them. They are not specific to friendships, but are present in other personal relationships as well.

Children's friendship. Canadian psychologists B. Baigelow and D. La Gaipa, studying children from 6 to 14 years old, found that friendship, in terms of normative expectations, goes through three stages of development:

1) situational relations in connection with common activities, territorial proximity, mutual assessment;

2) the contractual nature of relations - strict observance of the rules of friendship and high requirements to the character of a friend;

3) "internal-psychological" stage - personal traits acquire paramount importance: fidelity, sincerity, the ability to intimacy.

In young children, friendship is unstable, situational. For example, L. N. Galiguzova found that young children often cannot recognize among three peers the one with whom they had met alone 15 times before and played for a long time. Children's friendship can end because of a trifle, as they do not know how to put up with the private shortcomings of their friends.

The first love not only does not weaken the need for a friend, but often strengthens it because of the need to share your experiences with him. But as soon as it appears mutual love with her psychological and physical intimacy, she ceases to discuss with friends until love relationships no difficulties will arise.

Love

Currently, D. Lee has developed a more detailed typology of love:

1) eros - passionate love-hobby, striving for complete physical possession;

2) ludus - hedonistic love is a game that does not differ in depth of feeling and relatively easily admits the possibility of betrayal;

3) storge - calm, warm and reliable love-friendship;

4) pragma - arises from a combination of ludus and storge - rational, easily controllable; calculated love;

5) mania - appears as a combination of eros and ludus, irrational love-obsession, which is characterized by insecurity and dependence on the object of attraction;

6) agape - selfless love-self-giving, the synthesis of eros and storge.

For women, storgical, pragmatic and manic manifestations of love are more characteristic, and erotic and especially human love is more characteristic of young men.

Love for a particular person, according to E. Fromm, must be realized through love for people (humanity). Otherwise, as he believes, love becomes superficial and random, remains something small.

Love is an intimate affection with great power, so great that the loss of the object of this affection seems irreplaceable to a person, and his existence after this loss is meaningless.

There are several types of love.

Thus, one speaks of active and passive forms of love; in the first case they love, and in the second they allow themselves to be loved.

They divide short-term love - falling in love and long-term - passionate love. E. Fromm, K. Izard and others talk about the love of parents for their children (parental, maternal and paternal love), children for their parents (sons, daughters), between brothers and sisters (sibling love), between a man and a woman (romantic love). love), to all people (Christian love), love to God. They also talk about mutual and unrequited love.

Love manifests itself in constant concern for the object of love, in sensitivity to its needs and in readiness to satisfy them, as well as in the aggravation of the experience of this feeling (sentimentality) - in tenderness and affection. It is difficult to say what emotional experiences accompany a person when they show tenderness and affection. This is something obscure, almost ephemeral, practically not amenable to conscious analysis. These experiences are akin to a positive emotional tone of impressions, which is also quite difficult to verbalize, except for the fact that a person experiences something pleasant, close to light and quiet joy.

Sexual love. E. Fromm gives the following abstract definition of this love: this is a relationship between people, when one person considers another as close, related to himself, identifies himself with him, feels the need for rapprochement, unification; identifies with him his own interests and aspirations and, which is very important, voluntarily spiritually and physically gives himself to another and seeks to mutually possess him.

R. Sternberg developed a three-component theory of love.

The first component of love - intimacy, feeling of closeness, manifested in love relationships. Lovers feel connected to each other. Proximity has several manifestations: joy about the fact that a loved one is nearby; the desire to make the life of a loved one better; the desire to help in difficult times and the hope that a loved one also has such a desire; exchange of thoughts and feelings; having common interests.

Traditional ways of courtship can interfere with intimacy if they are purely ritualistic and lack sincere exchange of feelings. Intimacy can be destroyed by negative feelings (irritation, anger) that arise during quarrels over trifles, as well as the fear of being rejected.

The second component of love - passion. It leads to physical attraction and sexual behavior in relationships. Although sexual relations are important here, they are not the only kind of needs. There is a need for self-respect, a need to get support in difficult times.

The relationship between intimacy and passion is ambiguous: sometimes intimacy causes passion, in other cases passion precedes intimacy. It also happens that passion is not accompanied by intimacy, and intimacy is not accompanied by passion. It is important not to confuse attraction to the opposite sex with sexual desire.

The third element of love - decision-obligation (responsibility). It has short term and long term aspects. The short-term aspect is reflected in the decision that a particular person loves another, the long-term aspect is reflected in the obligation to preserve this love (“oath of love to the grave”).

And this component is not uniquely correlated with the previous two. To demonstrate possible combinations, R. Sternberg developed a taxonomy of love relationships.

These kinds of love are extreme cases. Most real love relationships fall in between these categories because the different components of love are continuous, not discrete.

Table 12.2 Systematics of types of love by R. Sternberg

Note: + the component is present, - the component is absent.

The love of parents for children.

E. Fromm (1998) points out the differences between maternal and paternal love.

Mother's love unconditional - a mother loves her child for what he is. Her love is not subject to the control of the child, since it cannot be earned from the mother. A mother's love is either there or it isn't.

paternal love conditioned - the father loves because the child lives up to his expectations. Father's love is controlled - it can be earned, but it can also be lost.

At the same time, Fromm points out that we are talking not about a specific parent - mother or father, but about maternal or paternal principles, which are represented to a certain extent by both parents.

An important characteristic of parental love, especially of a mother, is emotional availability. This is not just the physical presence or physical proximity of the parent, it is his willingness to give the child his warmth, his tenderness, and subsequently understanding, support, approval.

Parents' concern for their children is determined by the sensitivity of parents to the needs of the child and their willingness to satisfy them. The range of manifestation of this sensitivity is extremely large - from importunity to complete indifference.

Jealousy

Jealousy is a suspicious attitude of a person towards the object of adoration, associated with painful doubts about his loyalty or knowledge of his infidelity.

Jealousy involves three sides in its orbit (triadic relationships): the first is the jealous one, the second is the one who is jealous, and the third is the one (those) who are jealous, perceived by the jealous as a rival, claiming, like him, for the love of parents , the favor of the boss, etc. .

P. Titelman defines the differences between envy and jealousy as follows: a feeling of envy arises when an individual does not have what he passionately wants; a feeling of jealousy arises when, due to the presence of a rival, an individual is afraid of losing what he has and what is significant to him.

If envy in most cases is considered a human flaw, then jealousy, which has objective reasons, is a socially approved feeling and is encouraged by society.

E. Hatfield and G. Walster consider the cause of jealousy to be a sense of hurt pride and awareness of a violation of property rights.

Jealousy for the object of sexual love. A special position is occupied by jealousy, manifested in the relationship between the sexes. It is associated with a feeling of love and the reason for it is the fact that someone loves not us, but another. In this case, the lover's own dignity becomes wounded, offended. This jealousy is experienced especially acutely. One has only to imagine that his lover is not meeting with him, but with someone else, as he begins to experience unbearable mental pain. At such moments, a person is permeated with the thought that he has forever lost something very valuable, that he was abandoned, betrayed, that no one needs him, and his love turned out to be meaningless. The emerging consciousness of one's loneliness and inner emptiness is accompanied by disappointment, sadness, resentment, shame, annoyance, anger. In such a state, a person is not able to behave rationally.

Jealousy is associated with a person's pre-existing confidence in love. loved one and with his idea that only he has the right to possess it. The result of this is an encroachment on the personal freedom of a loved one, despotism, suspicion. Frequent affective outbursts of jealousy, which can lead to tragic consequences. Jealousy turns love into hate. Then a person seeks in any way to cause suffering, insult and humiliate the person he loves. Such hatred often remains repressed and manifests itself in the form of mockery of the beloved.

AN Volkova classifies reactions of jealousy on several grounds: according to the criterion of the norm - normal or pathological; according to the content criterion - affective, cognitive, behavioral; by type of experience - active and passive; intensity - moderate and deep, heavy.

Normal, non-pathological reactions are distinguished by the adequacy of the situation, understandable to many people, accountable to the subject, often controlled by him. Pathological jealousy has the opposite characteristics.

Cognitive reactions are expressed in the desire to analyze the fact of betrayal, look for its cause, look for the culprit (I am a partner - a rival), build a forecast of the situation, trace the background, that is, create a picture of the event. Cognitive reactions are more pronounced in individuals of an asthenic warehouse, intellectuals.

Affective reactions are expressed in the emotional experience of betrayal. The most characteristic emotions are despair, anger, hatred and contempt for yourself and your partner, love and hope. Depending on the type of personality, affective reactions occur against the background of melancholic depression or angry agitation. The predominance of affective reactions is observed in people of an artistic, hysterical, emotionally labile warehouse.

Behavioral reactions appear in the form of a fight or a refusal. The struggle is expressed in attempts to restore relations (explanations), keep a partner (requests, persuasion, threats, pressure, blackmail), eliminate an opponent, make it difficult to meet with him, draw attention to oneself (causing pity, sympathy, sometimes coquetry). In case of refusal to restore relations, the connection with the partner breaks off or acquires a distant, official character.

With active reactions characteristic of sthenic and extroverted personalities, a person seeks the necessary information, openly expresses his feelings, seeks to return a partner, competes with an opponent. With passive reactions, asthenic and introverted personalities do not make persistent attempts to influence relationships, jealousy flows inside a person.

Sharp and deep reactions of jealousy are the result of complete surprise of betrayal against the backdrop of a prosperous marriage. Cheating hurts a trusting and devoted person more. Jealousy becomes protracted if the situation is not resolved, the partner behaves inconsistently, without making a definite decision.

Volkova notes that the following contribute to the strengthening of the reaction of jealousy:

1) inert mental processes that make it difficult to understand, react and act in a given situation;

2) an idealistic attitude, in which a person does not allow any compromises in love life;

3) pronounced possessive attitude towards things and persons;

4) overestimated or underestimated self-esteem; with an overestimated self-esteem, a despotic variant of experiencing jealousy is observed, with an underestimated one, a person acutely experiences his own inferiority;

5) loneliness, poverty of interpersonal relationships, in which there is no one to replace a partner;

6) sensitivity of a person to betrayals of various kinds in other partnerships;

7) strong dependence on a partner in achieving any vital goals (material security, career, etc.).

There are several types of jealousy: tyrannical, from infringement, converted, instilled (Linchevsky, 1978).

Tyrannical jealousy occurs in stubborn, domineering, complacent, petty, emotionally cold and aloof subjects. Such people make very high demands on others, which can be difficult or even impossible to fulfill and do not arouse sympathy in the sexual partner, but also lead to cooling in relationships. When such a despotic subject tries to find an explanation for this cooling, he sees the reason for it not in himself, but in a partner, "who has an extraneous interest, a tendency to infidelity."

Jealousy from infringement of self-esteem It manifests itself in people with an anxious and suspicious character, with low self-esteem, insecure, easily falling into melancholy and despair, prone to exaggerate troubles and dangers. Self-doubt, a sense of his own inferiority makes him see an opponent in everyone he meets. And if it seems to him that the partner did not show him due attention, he immediately has doubts, suspicions about the fidelity of a loved one.

Converted Jealousy represents the result of one's own tendencies towards infidelity, its projection onto the partner. The line of reasoning of a jealous person is this: since he has thoughts of adultery, why can't others, including his partner, have them? Usually, converted jealousy occurs in place of extinguished love, since lingering love is rarely combined with dreams of other sexual partners. This type of jealousy is the most everyday, prosaic.

Instilled jealousy is the result of suggestion from the outside that "all men (women) are the same", hints about the spouse's infidelity.

There are the following ways to overcome jealousy:

1) distraction to something significant for a person (study, work, caring for children, hobbies);

2) the development of a new view of things, the formation of the morality of forgiveness, conscious control over the reactions of jealousy;

3) learning lessons, finding your own mistakes, building new relationships with a partner, possibly of a different type;

4) depreciation of a partner and a situation of betrayal - their comparison in a number of other values, life attitudes;

5) in case of disintegration of the partnership - the search for a new partner, a change in lifestyle, the formation of other interpersonal relationships.

Sibling rivalry.

In childhood, everyone has experienced emotional experiences associated with jealousy. At first, the child loves his mother and father passively, and soon he begins to understand that he cannot always get a response from them: after all, even the most tender mother and the most caring father leave the child for each other from time to time. This reassures the child that every time. when he wants someone to love him, he runs the risk of being abandoned.

The first reactions of jealousy are already observed in nine-month-old children. They are primitive and stereotyped. The child screams, cries, twitches when he sees how the mother approaches another child, takes him in her arms. Less often, a child is jealous of an adult, for example, when a mother pretends to hug her father. The child may be jealous of the doll, he throws it if he saw her parents stroking her. At ten months old, seeing how the mother puts her head on the shoulder of the father, she tries to stick herself between them.

At the age of one year and nine months, the girl does not want her doll to have a dress sewn. At the age of two and a half years, hostile actions due to jealousy are already restrained, instead of them feelings, resentment, pouting appear.

Then, at the age of two and a half to five years, jealousy appears when the child already has active love for his parents, which turns out to be “unrequited” by them; mother or father did not reciprocate, did not react to his feelings with the desired trepidation. The child feels rejected, isolated, "exposed outside the door of a house where others enjoy love and happiness." This experience lays the foundation for all subsequent neurotic disorders and other psychopathologies in this person.

Boys have a positive Oedipus complex (named after the mythical character of King Oedipus, who in ignorance married his mother and killed his father). It manifests itself in sexual attraction to the mother and in jealousy of the father, whom the boy begins to consider as a rival in the fight for the mother, despite the tender feelings he has for him. A negative Oedipus complex is also possible, when a boy develops love for his father and hatred for his mother. Sometimes both forms are combined and there is an ambivalent attitude towards parents.

Girls have Elektra complex (named after the mythical princess who, in revenge for the murder of her beloved father, participated in the murder of her mother, who was responsible for his death). Girls become sexually attracted to their father and jealous of their mother, who is seen as a rival. As with boys, this complex can be positive, negative (love for mother and hate for father) and mixed.

In children, jealousy also arises in relation to their brothers and sisters. For the first-born, the appearance of a second child in the family is a serious test. After all, the eldest child is deprived of the monopoly right to the attention and admiration of the parents. The same sex of children and a small difference in age (two to three years) increase the likelihood of jealousy and rivalry for the attention of the mother. However, how much this jealousy will develop depends on the sensitivity of the parents, their ability to show the elder that he is still desired and necessary for them.

It can be assumed that the feeling of jealousy has phylogenetic roots. One of the circus trainers said that when a young leopard begins to perform the tricks of an old one, the latter becomes jealous.

Hostility

Feeling of hostility is a hostile attitude towards someone with whom a person is in conflict. A. Bass understands hostility as a state of narrow direction, always having a certain object. I am more impressed by the understanding of hostility by K. Izard, who defines it as a complex affective-cognitive trait, or personality orientation, which corresponds to my understanding of feeling as an emotional attitude. The feeling of hostility arises from the negative experience of communication and interaction with any person in a conflict situation. It occurs more easily in touchy and vengeful people. The feeling of hostility manifests itself in an “aggressive mood”, “aggressive state” (N.D. Levitov), ​​i.e. in the emotions of anger (anger), disgust and contempt with their inherent feelings and expression, which can lead to aggressive behavior.

However, A. Bass notes that hostility and aggressive behavior are combined, although often, but by no means always. People can be in hostile relations, but not show any aggression, if only because its negative consequences for the “aggressor” are known in advance. There is also aggression without hostility, when, for example, a person is robbed without experiencing any hostile feelings towards him.

K. Izard also emphasizes that aggressive verbal and physical actions are not included in hostility, and this is true. Hostile (aggressive) behavior may stem from a feeling of hostility, be motivated by it, but it is not this feeling itself. Hostility is not yet aggression (although it is difficult to imagine that in relation to the object of hostility a person would not show indirect verbal aggression, that is, he did not complain about him to anyone, did not say any taunt about him. Obviously, these authors are talking about the manifestation straight physical and verbal aggression).

K. Izard even believes that hostility is a complex motivational state, but here, in my opinion, he makes a mistake. The feeling of hostility can participate in the motivation of hostile behavior (aggression or, conversely, avoidance of contact) as one of the motivators, but it is not able to replace the entire motivational process and motive.

A strongly expressed feeling of hostility is designated as hatred. You can hate not only individuals, but humanity as a whole, although strong disappointment applies only to a specific person.

Anger- this is frustration, the result of frequent suppression of resentment and anger, a form of chronic hostility of everyone and everything, bitterness. This is a chronic state of irritation and extreme, reaching cruelty, anger. (hate: see also section 12.8). Anger develops gradually and often has its origins in infancy. So, “embittered children” are often children from orphanages. Children become embittered as a result of the cruel treatment of them by parents and adults. They treat others with the same indifference, callousness, heartlessness, and sometimes cruelty, with which they were once treated. Their bitterness is designed to hide unbearable insults and disappointments.

Xenophobia. Hatred directed against certain groups of the population, for example, against such minorities as foreigners or emigrants, is designated as xenophobia, in which, as P. Kutter writes, “there is no trace of passion, but only undisguised hatred and a thirst for destruction ...”. In some women and men, as a result of unsuccessful love, hatred of all persons of the opposite sex may arise.

Hatred also appears in malice i.e., in an irritably captious attitude towards someone, and also in slander especially if the hatred is hidden.

At the same time, the feeling of hatred can be beneficial for a person. However, for the moral assessment of this feeling, it is important to know what or whom the hatred is directed at.

Cynicism. A specific manifestation of contempt is cynicism, that is, a person's persistent contemptuous attitude towards the culture of society, towards its spiritual, and especially moral, values. The term "cynicism" owes its origin to the ancient Greek philosophical school of the Cynics, who held their disputes on an Athenian hill called Kynosarges. In Latin, the word "cynics" began to sound like "cynics". Cynics preached contempt for social culture, the complete independence of man from society, a return to the "natural" state. Cynicism is manifested both in words and in deeds: desecration of what constitutes the culture of mankind, mockery of moral principles, ridicule of ideals, trampling on human dignity. Thus, cynicism is not only an emotional but also a moral feeling.

Man has created truly powerful means of knowing nature and himself - art and science, which have absorbed all forms human knowledge. Art, science and technology cannot but influence the worldview of people and their psychology. The horror of the world opens up before a person, and he strives for an aesthetic ideal. Through correlation with norms, ideals, evaluation is carried out - the determination of the value of what is happening.

The main categories of consciousness of an archaic person are formed by mythological ideas. Science has developed an idea of ​​myths as structures expressing "unusual" reality, as symbolic systems. K.G. Jung * believed that these are the primary forms that organize mental contents, schemes, according to which the thoughts and feelings of all mankind are formed - archetypes - the functional structures of the collective unconscious. The result of the actualization of archetypes is archetypal ideas, the value consciousness of mankind is formed. The most important concepts of value consciousness were the concepts of good and evil, beauty and ugliness. This system of orientations plays an important role in individual and social consciousness. Modern views on the structure of the Universe, and human nature make hard conclusions about the responsibility of people for all life on earth. Art leads to the same conclusions, but it is not about proof, but about emotional display. Art can make us live thousands of other people's lives.

The question of the presence of creativity in a person and the need for self-realization has been relevant since ancient times. Artistic creativity begins with a heightened attention to the phenomena of the world, the ability to keep them in memory and comprehend. An important psychological factor in artistic creativity is memory, not "mirror", but selective. creative process unthinkable without imagination, which allows you to reproduce ideas and impressions. Imagination has many varieties: philosophical and lyrical - in Tyutchev, phantasmagoric - in Hoffmann, romantic - in Vrubel, painfully hypertrophied - in Dali, realistically strict - in Fellini, etc.

Subconscious processes play a special role in artistic creation. The American psychologist F. Berron examined a group of writers and came to the conclusion that among the representatives of this profession, emotionality and intuition are highly developed and prevail over rationality. 89% of the subjects turned out to be “intuitive personalities”, while in the control group (people far from artistic creativity), there were 25% of individuals with developed intuition. F. Schelling wrote: “... the artist involuntarily and even contrary to his inner desire is involved in the creative process. Just as a doomed person does not do what he wants or intends to do, but fulfills the inscrutable prescribed by fate, in whose power he is, the position of the artist seems to be the same ... a force acts on him that draws a line between him and other people , prompting him to depict and express things that are not completely open to his gaze and have inscrutable depth. The creative process is especially fruitful when the artist is in a state of inspiration - psychological condition clarity of thought, the intensity of its work, the richness and speed of associations, insight life problems, a powerful "ejection" of accumulated experience and its direct inclusion in creativity. Inspiration gives rise to extraordinary creative energy. In a state of inspiration is achieved optimal combination intuitive and conscious principles in the creative process.

Freud believed that in the act of creativity, socially irreconcilable principles are ousted from the artist's consciousness and thereby the elimination of real life conflicts, that unsatisfied desires are stimuli for fantasy. W. Schiller wrote: "The unconscious in conjunction with the mind makes a poet-artist." The manifestation of a person's personal characteristics contributes to the development of individuality, emphasizes his unique and inimitable features.

Aesthetic feelings are a product of human cultural development. These feelings are manifested in appropriate assessments, in artistic tastes and are experienced as emotions of aesthetic pleasure and delight, or, if their object is inconsistent with the aesthetic criteria of the individual, as emotions of contempt, disgust, etc. The level of development and richness of a person's aesthetic feelings is an important indicator of his social maturity. For example, a sense of humor presupposes that the subject has a positive ideal, without which it degenerates into negative phenomena: vulgarity, cynicism, etc. If a person abandons culture in favor of his own pleasures, he loses his protection, and may perish. If he refuses pleasures in favor of culture, then this is a certain burden on his psyche. Freud writes about it this way: "... any culture must be built on coercion and on the renunciation of instincts, and when it is understood, it turns out that the center of gravity has been shifted from material interests to the psyche."

Freud was one of the first who tried to see in the dominant instincts of a person the need for self-realization, which is localized in the unconscious and manifests itself in the "striving for pleasure." This instinctive need for self-realization is opposed by the requirements of culture created by society (traditions, rules, etc.). Their main function is to suppress "instinct-like" needs. The peculiarity of self-realization is that, satisfying it in single acts (writing a novel, creating a work of art), a person cannot fully satisfy it.

Considering the culture of the individual, one can distinguish its internal and external sides. A person gives himself to others, but this impression can be deceiving. Sometimes, behind outwardly refined manners, there is a cynical individual who despises the norms of human morality. At the same time, not boasting of his cultural behavior, a person can have a rich spiritual world and a deep inner culture, intelligence, which implies a high level of aesthetic development, moral reliability, honesty and truthfulness, selflessness, a developed sense of duty and responsibility, loyalty to one’s word, a highly developed sense of tact and, finally, that complex fusion of personality traits that is called decency. This set of characteristics is far from complete, but the main ones are listed.

Aesthetic feelings reflect and express the attitude of the subject to various facts of life and their reflection in art as something beautiful or ugly, tragic or comic, sublime or vulgar, elegant or rude. Life in the natural and social world gives rise to a complex range of feelings and experiences in people. These include a feeling of uncertainty, helplessness, loss, impotence, loneliness, sadness, grief, mental anguish, a person fears, worries about his loved ones, for his country, for life on Earth. At the same time, people have a whole range of “bright” emotions: feelings of happiness, harmony, fullness of bodily and spiritual strength, satisfaction with their accomplishments and life. The ability to be guided in the perception of the phenomena of the surrounding reality by the concepts of beauty, the love of beauty lies at the basis of aesthetic feelings. They are manifested in artistic assessments and tastes. A person endowed with a developed aesthetic taste, when perceiving works of art, pictures of nature, another person, experiences pleasant or unpleasant emotions for him, the range of which is wide - from a feeling of pleasure and delight to disgust. In the philosophical and psychological literature, the spiritual beginning of a person is associated with the social and creative nature of his activity, with the inclusion of a person in the world of culture. The inner world of a person has diverse connections and relationships with the entire world of culture; here it acquires meaning and a spiritual dimension.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following types of feelings:

1. lower feelings
2. higher feelings
3. moral feelings
4. aesthetic feelings
5. Intellectual Feelings
6. social feelings

Definition 1

A feeling is a personal emotional attitude of a person experienced in a variety of forms to the objects and phenomena surrounding him.

In psychology, the following main types are distinguished:

lower feelings

Associated with the satisfaction of basic human physiological needs. For example, a feeling of satiety or thirst, security or peace.

higher feelings

They reveal the inner world of a person. They are associated with the satisfaction of human social needs. They form the basis of all types of human activity, facilitating or hindering social activities.

The higher senses are divided into moral, aesthetic, intellectual and social feelings.

Moral

They show the attitude of a person to people, to the Fatherland, to his family, to himself. These feelings include love, humanism, respect for the Motherland, responsiveness, loyalty, dignity. The diversity of moral feelings reflects the brightness of human relationships. These feelings govern human behavior.

aesthetic feelings

They represent the experience of feeling something beautiful. These feelings are most clearly manifested when contemplating works of art or natural manifestations. They have their development in accordance with the understanding of art. So, for example, music forms musical feelings in a person. These include the following feelings: humor, sarcasm, sensitivity, creative inspiration, a sense of exaltation.

Intellectual Feelings

They are based on the knowledge of people, the desire to satisfy curiosity, the search for truth and the solution of specific mental problems. These include interest, curiosity, a sense of mystery, doubt, bewilderment.

social feelings

They provide emotional interaction of a person with the world around him. This includes such common feelings as: justice, honor, duty, responsibility, patriotism, solidarity, as well as shyness, confusion, boredom, greed.

Let's consider some of them in more detail:

Passion- this is a powerful, exciting feeling that prevails over other aspirations of a person. It leads to fixing the attention of a person, all his forces on the object of passion.

Hatred- this is a firm proactive negative feeling aimed at an event that objects to a person's needs, his views and values. This feeling can cause not only a critical assessment of its object, but also destructive activity directed towards it. Before the formation of hatred, there is usually a strong discontent or a regular accumulation of negative emotions. The object of hatred then may be the true or apparent cause of events.

Humor associated with a person's ability to notice contradictions or inconsistencies in the world around. For example, to notice and exaggerate the opposite of positive or negative aspects in some person. Humor implies a friendly feeling (a combination of funny and good). Behind the laughable imperfections, something positive, pleasant is implied.

Irony compares the positive with the negative, the ideal opposes fantasy and reality, or correlates the noble with the ridiculous. A person feels his superiority over an object that evokes an ironic feeling in him. And malicious irony can turn into ridicule or bullying.

Cynicism, this is a feeling that refutes life values, as well as disregard for the foundations of public morality, rules of conduct. Behind cynicism hides the inability to make efforts on the part of a person.

Sarcasm displays caustic mockery, malicious irony, or derisive remarks. Behind sarcasm lies an inability to take action.

Aesthetic feelings - an emotional state associated with the attitude towards beauty in the surrounding social and natural environment. Can be great as physical objects and relationships between people. Aesthetic feelings merge with moral feelings (hence the expression "beautiful deed", "beautiful character", etc.). V.G. Belinsky rightly said that beauty is the sister of morality. Moral education is inextricably linked with the education of an aesthetic attitude to reality. People's actions are evaluated both as an ethical and as an aesthetic phenomenon, they are experienced both as beautiful (or ugly) and as good (or evil). Depending on the properties of phenomena, aesthetic feelings are expressed as an experience of the beautiful or the ugly, the tragic or the comic. The concept of beauty changes depending on changes in the development of society. So, the norm of external beauty of a woman among the peasants was a dense, large physique, physical strength, a blush as a sign of health, etc. The ideal of a secular beauty was completely different.

The feeling of the tragic is associated with a reflection of the contradiction between necessity and possibility, with a reflection of the confrontation between the beautiful and the ugly. grief over tragic events activates the progressive activity of people. Tragic evokes hatred for base things.

The sense of the comic is based on the discrepancy between this or that social phenomenon, the actions of people objective properties things: new - old, content - form, the real essence of a person - his opinion about himself, etc.

The reflection of phenomena as tragic and comic, funny and sad depends not only on what a person perceives, but also on his aesthetic, moral positions, the established system of assessments. Laughter for any trifling occasion, and even more so in connection with circumstances unpleasant for other people, is not aesthetic, it indicates a lack of understanding of the funny, the absence of a genuine sense of humor.

The experience of beauty in art is expressed in a state of artistic enjoyment. It depends on systematic communication with the beautiful, on the aesthetic knowledge of a person, his artistic assessments and tastes, emotional excitability, impressionability, understanding the relationship between the content and form of a given work, artistic style and method.

Works of art are one of the most powerful sources of human emotional experience, they form a person's attitude to life.

The emotional impact of art is based on the fact that true art reveals the essence of phenomena, manifests this essence in a directly perceived form.