Denis Valentinovich Manturov Minister of Industry and Trade of the Russian ...
Fragment from the book. Kovpak DV, "How to get rid of anxiety and fear". A practical guide by a psychotherapist. - SPb .: Science and technology, 2007 .-- 240 p.
In the course of life, on a relatively blank sheet, which is our psyche at birth, our reactions to stimuli are recorded in a huge amount, and over time they turn it into a manuscript strewn with many letters.
And, as the outstanding Georgian psychologist and philosopher Dmitry Nikolaevich Uznadze (1886-1950) established, the so-called installation, or willingness to react in a certain way in a certain situation... For the first time this concept was formulated by the German psychologist L. Lange in 1888, but the modern, generally accepted and recognized by the scientific community, the concept of "attitude" appeared later in the works of Uznadze.
Our perception of the world is not a passive, but a very active process. We see events, people and facts not objectively and impartially, but through some glasses, filters, prisms that whimsically and in various ways distort reality for each of us. This bias, selectivity and arbitrary coloring of perception in psychology is denoted by the term "attitude". To see what we want instead of what is real, to perceive reality in a halo of expectations is an amazing human property. In many cases, when we are confident that we are acting and judging quite soundly, on reflection, it turns out that our particular attitude has worked. Information that has gone through this mill of distorting perception sometimes takes on an unrecognizable guise.
The concept of "attitude" has taken an important place in psychology, because the phenomena of attitude permeate almost all spheres of human mental life. The readiness state, or installation, is of fundamental functional importance. A person prepared for a certain action has the ability to carry it out quickly and accurately, that is, more efficiently than an unprepared one. However, the installation may work erroneously and, as a result, turn out to be inconsistent with the real circumstances. In such a situation, we become hostages of our attitudes.
One of the experiments carried out by Dmitry Nikolaevich is a classic example that clarifies the concept of installation. It was as follows. The subject received a series of words written in Latin. For a period of time, he read them. Then the subject received a series of Russian words. But he continued to read them like Latin for some time. For example, instead of the word "ax" he read "monop". Analyzing experience. Uznadze writes: "... In the process of reading Latin words, the subject was activated by the corresponding attitude - the attitude to read in Latin, and when he is offered a Russian word, that is, a word in a well-understood yalyk, he reads it as if it were Only after a certain period of time the subject will begin to notice his mistake ... When it comes to the attitude, it is assumed that this is a certain state, which, as it were, precedes the solution of the problem, as if in advance includes the direction in which the problem should be solved ... "
Unconscious automatisms usually mean actions or acts that are performed "by themselves", without the participation of consciousness. Sometimes they talk about "mechanical work", about work in which "the head remains free." "Free head" means the absence of conscious control.
Analysis of automatic processes reveals their dual origin. Some of these processes were never realized, while others passed through consciousness and ceased to be realized.
The former are the group of primary automatisms, the latter are the group of secondary automatisms. The former are automatic actions, the latter are automated actions or skills.
The group of automatic actions includes either congenital acts or those that are formed very early, often during the first year of a child's life. For example, lip sucking, blinking, walking and many others.
The group of automated actions or skills is especially extensive and interesting. Thanks to the formation of the skill, a double effect is achieved: firstly, the action begins to be carried out quickly and accurately; secondly, there is a release of consciousness, which can be aimed at mastering a more complex action. This process is essential for the life of every person. It underlies the development of all our skills and abilities.
The field of consciousness is heterogeneous: it has a focus, a periphery and, finally, a border, beyond which the area of the unconscious begins. The latest and most complex components of the action are in the focus of consciousness; the next fall on the periphery of consciousness; finally, the simplest and most elaborate components go beyond the border of consciousness.
Remember how you mastered the computer (those who have already mastered it). At first, it took tens of seconds, if not a minute, to find the right key. And each action was preceded by a technological pause: it was necessary to examine the entire keyboard in order to find the necessary button. And any hindrance was like a disaster, because it led to many mistakes. Sounding music, noises, someone's movements - terribly annoying. But time has passed. Now these "first steps" in the past (approximately, at the level of the Mesozoic era) seem to be something unreal. It's hard to imagine that once it took more than one minute to find the right key and press it. Now there is no thought about "when which key to press", and the duration of the pauses has been sharply reduced. Everything is done automatically: the fingers seem to have gained sight - they themselves find the desired button and press it. And while working, you can listen to the sounds of music, be distracted by some extraneous topics, drink coffee, chew a sandwich without fear for the result, because a clear, so-called, dynamic stereotype has developed: actions are worked out and controlled unconsciously.
The unconsciousness of attitudes, on the one hand, makes our life easier by "unloading our heads" from regular routine affairs, on the other hand, it can significantly complicate life if the wrong attitudes are inappropriate or become, due to changed circumstances, unsuitable. Erroneous or inadequately used attitudes will be the cause of our unpleasant surprise caused by our own behavior, striking in its unreasonableness and uncontrollability.
One example of the defining effect of the attitude on human life is the amazing effectiveness of witchcraft in lullaby civilizations. The Western anthropologist, engaged in field work in the Australian desert, and the natives crowding around him, despite their spatial proximity, are in completely different worlds. Australian Aboriginal sorcerers carry with them the bones of giant lizards, which play the role of a magic wand. As soon as the sorcerer pronounces the death sentence and point this wand at one of his fellow tribesmen, he immediately develops a state corresponding to severe depression. But not from the action of the bones, of course, but from the boundless faith in the power of the sorcerer. The fact is that, having learned about the imposed curse, the unfortunate person cannot even imagine another scenario for the development of events, except for his inevitable death from the influence of the sorcerer. An attitude was formed in his psyche, dictating imminent death. In the human body, who is sure that he will die in any case, all stages of stress rapidly pass, life processes slow down and exhaustion develops. Here is a description of the action of such a "death command":
But if a sorcerer tries to do the same with any of the Europeans, at least with the same anthropologist, it is unlikely that he will succeed. The European simply will not understand the significance of what is happening - he will see in front of him a short naked man waving an animal bone and muttering some words. If it were otherwise, Australian sorcerers would have ruled the world for a long time! An Australian aborigine, who came to the session of Anatoly Mikhailovich Kashpirovsky, with his "attitude towards good", would hardly have realized the significance of the situation - most likely, he would have simply seen a gloomy man in a European suit, muttering some words and gazing from under his brows into the audience. Otherwise, Kashpirovsky could long ago have become the main shaman of the Australian aborigines.
By the way, the very phenomenon of Voodoo rituals or the so-called zombification can be easily explained from a scientific point of view, first of all, based on the concept of "installation".
Installation is the general name for the mechanism that guides our behavior in particular situations. The content of the installation is ideational. that is, mental processes. It is the attitude that determines the readiness in one situation to respond with positive emotions, and in another - with negative ones. The installation performs the task of filtering and selecting incoming information. It determines the stable, purposeful nature of the course of activity, frees a person from the need to consciously make a decision and arbitrarily control the activity in standard situations. However, in some cases, the attitude can serve as a factor provoking stress, reducing the quality of human life, causing inertia, rigidity of activity and making it difficult to adequately adapt to new situations.
Irrational stressful attitudes
All attitudes are based on normal psychological mechanisms that provide the most rational knowledge of the surrounding world and the most painless adaptation of a person in it. After all, as already mentioned, an attitude is a tendency towards a certain interpretation and comprehension of what is happening, and the quality of adaptation, that is, the quality of human life, depends on the adequacy of this interpretation.
What is more in your attitudes - rational or irrational - depends, of course, on biological factors, but to a greater extent on the influence of the psychological and social environment in which you grew and developed.
However, almost every person is given the opportunity to get rid of conscious and unconscious cognitive (mental) errors and delusions by forming more rational views and attitudes, reasonable and adaptive thinking. But in order to do this, it is necessary to understand what exactly prevents us from living in harmony with ourselves and the world. It is necessary to "know the enemy by sight."
The decisive factor for the survival of the organism is the fast and accurate processing of incoming information, which is greatly influenced by systematic bias. In other words, people's thinking is often biased and biased.
“The human mind, - said F. Bacon more than three hundred years ago, - is likened to an uneven mirror, which, mixing its nature with the nature of things, reflects things in a distorted and disfigured form.”
Each person has a weak point in his thinking - "cognitive vulnerability" - which determines his predisposition to psychological stress.
Personality is formed by schemes or, as psychologists say, cognitive structures, which are basal beliefs (positions). These schemes begin to form in childhood on the basis of personal experience and identification with significant others: people, virtual images, such as the heroes of books and films. Consciousness forms ideas and concepts - about oneself, others, about how the world is arranged and functions. These concepts are reinforced by further experience and, in turn, influence the formation of beliefs, values and attitudes.
Schemes can be helpful, helping to survive and improve quality of life, and harmful, contributing to unnecessary worries, problems, and stress (adaptive or dysfunctional). They are stable structures that become active when specific stimuli, stressors, and circumstances “turn on” them.
Harmful (dysfunctional) schemes and attitudes differ from useful (adaptive) ones in the presence of so-called cognitive distortions. Cognitive biases are systematic errors in thinking.
Harmful irrational attitudes are hard mental-emotional connections. According to A. Ellis, they have the character of a prescription, demand, order and are unconditional. In connection with these features, irrational attitudes come into confrontation with reality, contradict objectively established conditions and naturally lead to maladjustment and emotional problems of the individual. The lack of implementation of actions prescribed by irrational attitudes leads to prolonged inappropriate emotions.
As they develop, each person learns certain rules; they can be labeled as formulas, programs or algorithms through which he tries to comprehend reality. These formulas (views, attitudes, attitudes) determine how a person explains the events taking place with him and how they should be treated. In essence, a personal matrix of meanings and meanings is formed from these basic rules, which guides the individual in reality. Such rules work at the moment of comprehending the situation and within the psyche manifest themselves in the form of latent and automatic thoughts. Automatic thoughts are thoughts that appear spontaneously and are set in motion by circumstances. These thoughts "penetrate between the event (or, as it is commonly called, the stimulus) and the emotional and behavioral reactions of the individual. They are perceived without criticism, as indisputable, without checking their logic and realism (confirmation by facts)."
Such beliefs are formed from childhood experiences or are adopted from parents and peers. Many of them are based on family rules. For example, a mother says to her daughter: "If you are not a good girl, then my dad and I will stop loving you!" The girl thinks, repeats what she heard aloud and to herself, and then begins to say this to herself regularly and automatically. After a while, this commandment is transformed into a rule - "my value depends on what others think of me."
The child perceives irrational judgments and ideas, in the absence of the skill of critical analysis and sufficient experience, as a given and true. Using the language of gestalt therapy, the child introjects, "swallows" certain ideas that dictate a special type of behavior.
Most emotional problems are often based on one or more central ideas. It is the cornerstone that lies at the foundation of most beliefs, opinions, and actions. These central attitudes can be the root cause of the vast majority of psychological problems and inadequate emotional states.
Fortunately, due to the fact that cognitive phenomena can be noticed during introspection (observing your verbal thoughts and mental images), their nature and connections can be tested in a huge variety of situations and systematic experiments. Rejecting the idea of oneself as a helpless generation of biochemical reactions, blind impulses or automatic reflexes, a person gets the opportunity to see a being in himself that is inclined to give birth to erroneous ideas, but also capable of unlearning them or correcting them. Only by identifying and correcting mistakes in thinking, a person can organize life with higher levels of self-fulfillment and quality.
The cognitive-behavioral approach brings the understanding (and treatment) of emotional disorders closer to the person's everyday experience. For example, realizing that he has a problem associated with a misunderstanding that a person has manifested many times throughout his life. In addition, everyone, without any doubt, has achieved success in the past in correcting misinterpretations - either by obtaining more accurate, adequate information, or by realizing the fallacy of their understanding.
Below is a list of the most common harmful irrational (dysfunctional) attitudes. To facilitate the process of their identification, fixation and refinement (verification), we recommend using the so-called marker words. These words, both expressed and found in the course of observing oneself as thoughts, ideas and images, in most cases indicate the presence of an irrational attitude of the corresponding type. The more of them during analysis are revealed in thoughts and statements, the greater the severity (intensity of manifestation) and rigidity of the irrational attitude.
Installation must
The central idea of this attitude is the idea of duty. The word "should" itself is in most cases a language trap. The meaning of the word "must" means - only this way and nothing else. Therefore, the word "must", "must", "must" and the like denote a situation where there is no alternative. But such a designation of the situation is valid only in very rare, practically exceptional cases. For example, the statement “a person, if he wants to survive, must breathe air,” would be adequate, since there is no physical alternative. A statement like: "You must appear at the appointed place at 9.00" is in reality inaccurate, since, in fact, it hides behind itself other designations and explanations (or just words). For example: "I want you to come at 9.00", "You should, if you want to get something you need for yourself, appear at 9.00". It would seem, what's the difference how to say or think? But the fact is that by thinking this way on a regular basis and giving the “green light” to the must-attitude, we inevitably lead ourselves to the emergence of stress, acute or chronic.
The attitude of duty manifests itself in three areas. The first is the attitude of obligation in relation to oneself - that "I owe others." Having the belief that you owe something to someone will be a source of stress every time someone or something reminds you of this duty and something or someone at the same time will interfere with your fulfillment ...
Circumstances are often not in our favor, so the fulfillment of this "duty" in the event of some unfavorable circumstances becomes problematic. In this case, the person gets into the mistake he created: there is no possibility of "repaying the debt", but there is no possibility of "not repaying" either. In short, a complete impasse, which also threatens "global" troubles.
The second area of the duty-setting should be the responsibility of others. That is, we are talking about what "other people owe me": how they should behave with me, how to speak in my presence, what to do. And this is one of the most powerful sources of stress, because never and no one in life, in the entire history of mankind, had such an environment that it always and in everything behaved "appropriately". Even among the leaders of the highest rank, even among the pharaohs and priests, even among the most odious tyrants (and this attitude is one of the reasons that they became tyrants), people appeared in the field of visibility who "did not act as they should." And, naturally, when we see a person who does not act as he supposedly "should in relation to me", then the level of psycho-emotional indignation rises rapidly. Hence the stress.
The third area of the attitude of obligation is the requirements for the surrounding world. This is what acts as a claim to nature, weather, economic situation, government, etc.
Marker words: should (should, should, should not, should not, should not, etc.), necessarily, by all means, "nosebleed".
Installation of catastrophization
This attitude is characterized by exaggeration of the negative nature of the phenomenon or situation. It reflects the irrational belief that there are catastrophic events in the world, assessed so objectively, outside any frame of reference. The attitude manifests itself in statements of a negative nature, expressed in the most extreme degree. For example: "It is terrible to be left alone in old age", "It will be a disaster to start panicking in front of everyone", "Better the end of the world than blurt out something wrong in front of a large number of people."
In the case of the influence of the installation of catastrophization, the event is simply unpleasant assessed as something inevitable, monstrous and terrifying, destroying the basic values of a person once and for all. The event that has taken place is assessed as a "universal catastrophe" and a person who finds himself in the sphere of influence of this event feels that he is unable to change anything for the better. For example, having made a number of mistakes and expecting imminent claims from the management, a certain employee begins an internal monologue that may not even be aware of: "Oh, horror! Hv everything. This is the end! I will be fired! This is monstrous! What will I do! This is a disaster! ! .. "It is clear that, thinking in this way, a person begins to create a lot of negative emotions and after them physical discomfort appears.
But it is completely pointless to deliberately "wind up" yourself, to oppress and suppress by reasoning about what happened, perceiving it as a universal catastrophe. Of course, being fired is unpleasant. But is this a disaster? No. Or is it something life-threatening and mortal? Also no. Is it rational to go into tragic experiences, and not look for ways out of the prevailing circumstances?
Marker words: disaster, nightmare, horror, end of the world.
Setting the prediction of a negative future
The tendency to believe your specific expectations, both verbally and mentally.
Remember one famous fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm. She's called Clever Elsa. In a free retelling, it sounds like this:
Once my wife (Elsa) went to the basement for milk (in the original - for beer!) And disappeared. The husband (Hans) waited and waited, but still there was no wife. And I already want to eat (drink), but she does not come. He was worried: "Has something happened?" And he went to the basement for her. He goes down the steps and sees: his faithful sits and weeps with bitter tears. "What's happened?" - exclaimed the husband. And she answered: "Do you see the ax hanging by the stairs?" He: "Well, yes, so what?" And it is stronger to burst into tears. "What happened, tell me at last!" - the husband pleaded. The spouse says: "Here we have a child and he will go when he grows up in the basement, and the ax will fall off and kill him to death! That is horror and bitter grief!" The husband, of course, calmed down his half, not forgetting to call her "smart" (in the original, he was even delighted from the bottom of the heart: "I don't need more intelligence in the household"), checked whether the ax was firmly fixed. But my wife has already spoiled her mood with her far-fetched assumptions. And she did it completely in vain. Now you have to calm down and restore peace of mind for more than one couple of hours ...
This is how, becoming prophets, or rather, pseudo-prophets, we predict failures, then we do everything for their embodiment, and in the end we get them. But, in fact, does such forecasting seem reasonable and rational? Clearly not. Because our opinion about the future is not the future. This is just a hypothesis, which, like any theoretical assumption, must be tested for truth. And it is possible in some cases only empirically (by "trial and error"). Of course, doubts are needed in order to find the truth and not be mistaken. But sometimes, getting in the way, they block the movement and interfere with the achievement of the result.
Marker words: what if; but what if; but it may be.
Setting maximalism
This attitude is characterized by the selection for oneself and / or other persons of the highest of the hypothetically possible standards (even if no one is able to achieve them), and their subsequent use as a standard for determining the value of an action, phenomenon or personality.
The well-known expression is indicative: "To love - so the queen, to steal - so a million!"
Thinking is characterized by an all-or-nothing attitude! The extreme form of the maximalist attitude is the perfectionist attitude (from perfectio (lat.) - ideal, perfect).
Marker words: to the maximum, only excellent / excellent, 100% ("one hundred percent").
Setting dichotomous thinking
Literally translated into Russian. Po means "cutting into two parts." Dichotomous thinking manifests itself in the tendency to place life experience in one of two opposing categories, for example: flawless or imperfect, flawless or despicable, saint or sinner.
Thinking under the dictates of this attitude can be described as "black and white", characterized by a tendency to think in extremes. There is an assessment of concepts (which in reality are located in a continuum (in an indissoluble interaction), as antagonists and as mutually exclusive options.
The statement: "In this world, you are either a winner or a loser" - clearly demonstrates the polarity of the options presented and their tough confrontation.
Marker words: either ... - or ... ("or yes - or no", "or pan, or disappeared"), or - either ... ("either alive or dead").
Setting personalization
It manifests itself as a tendency to associate events exclusively with one's own person, when there is no reason for such a conclusion, and also to interpret most events as relating to themselves.
"Everyone is looking at me," "Surely these two are evaluating me now," and so on.
Marker words: pronouns - me, me, me, me.
Setting overgeneralization
Overgeneralization refers to patterns of formulating a general rule based on one or more isolated episodes. The impact of this attitude leads to a categorical judgment based on a single attribute (criterion, episode) about the entire totality of phenomena. As a result, there is an unjustified generalization based on sample information. For example: "All men are pigs", "If it did not work out right away, then it will never work." A principle is formed - if something is true in one case, it is true in all other more or less similar cases.
Marker words: everything, nobody, nothing, everywhere, nowhere, never, always, forever, constantly.
Setting mind reading
This attitude forms the tendency to ascribe to other people unspoken judgments, opinions, and specific thoughts. The sullen look of the boss can be interpreted by anxious subordinates as thoughts, or even a ripe decision to fire him. This may be followed by a sleepless night of painful thoughts, and the decision: "I will not let him get pleasure from mocking me - I will resign of my own free will." And the next morning, at the very beginning of the working day, the boss, who was tormented by stomach pains yesterday (with which his "stern" look was connected), is trying to understand why suddenly his not the worst employee wants to quit his job so sharply and with obvious irritation. work.
Marker words: he (she / they) thinks (they).
Estimated installation
This attitude manifests itself in the case of evaluating the personality of a person as a whole, and not his individual traits, qualities, actions, etc. Evaluation reveals its irrational character when a separate aspect of a person is identified with the characteristic of his entire personality.
Marker words: bad, good, worthless, stupid, etc.
The setting of anthropomorphism
Attribution of human properties and qualities to objects and phenomena of animate and inanimate nature.
Marker words: wants, thinks, believes, fairly, honestly, and similar statements addressed to inanimate objects.
Dmitry Kovpak, "How to get rid of anxiety and fear"
A person living in the third millennium does not need to be convinced that the world is changing rapidly, it has become so obvious. Since the new reality is accompanied by changes, then people must change, but it is extremely difficult to agree with this, especially when it comes to the person himself. The need to change others can be accepted, it is much more difficult to recognize the need to change oneself. The mechanism of counteraction to new conditions is psychological barriers as a specific form of manifestation of the syndrome of "resistance to change", which has two sides: the fear of losing the old, the familiar and the fear of the new, the unusual. Let us dwell on this psychological phenomenon in more detail.
In a broad sense " barrier"(From French barriere) means an elongated partition placed as an obstacle on the way, or a barrier. By analogy, this word is also used in the field of psychology to designate those obstacles, internal or external, that prevent a person from achieving his goal.
Psychological barrier- "mental state, manifested as inadequate passivity, which prevents the performance of certain actions." Its emotional mechanism consists in the strengthening of negative feelings and attitudes, low self-esteem. In social behavior, psychological barriers are represented by communication barriers, manifested in the absence of empathy, in the rigidity of interpersonal social and other attitudes, as well as semantic barriers.
The problem of barriers is solved within the broader framework of the concept of a psychological attitude - the readiness to perceive and act, understand and interpret the object of perception, thinking or future events in a certain way. This special "vision" underlies the selective activity of a person, his behavior. It regulates conscious and unconscious forms of mental activity in all areas: motivational, cognitive, emotional. Attitudes are formed as a result of a person's life experience and create both colossal advantages and colossal limitations.
Psychological attitudes play a positive role, because they:
determine the stable, consistent and purposeful nature of the activity, which allows maintaining this orientation in a continuously changing situation;
free a person from the need to make decisions and consciously control activities in standard, previously encountered situations.
Psychological attitudes play a negative role:
acting as a factor causing inertia, inertia of activity;
making it difficult for a person to adapt to new, changed situations.
Attitudes have a particularly detrimental effect on thinking, which is manifested in its stereotyped, stereotyped, rigidity, i.e. difficulties - up to complete inability - to change the planned program of activity in the new conditions that objectively require its restructuring. Rigidity or flexibility of thinking essentially depends on the conditions of initial training.
Let us illustrate how attitudes are formed in an experiment with monkeys.
There are five monkeys in the cage. A bunch of bananas are tied to the ceiling. There is a staircase under them. Hungry, one of the monkeys approached the stairs with the clear intention of getting a banana. As soon as she touched the stairs, the experimenter opens the tap and pours cold water on all the monkeys from the hose. A little time passes, and another monkey tries to eat a banana. The experimenter turns on the water again and douches all the monkeys. When the third monkey tries to get a banana, the others grab it, not wanting a cold shower.
Now one monkey is taken out of the cage and replaced with another. The new girl, noticing the bananas, immediately tries to get them. To her horror, she sees the evil faces of the other monkeys attacking her. After the third attempt, the newcomer realizes that she will not be allowed to get a banana.
Now one more of the original five monkeys is removed from the cage and a new one is launched there. As soon as she tried to get a banana, all the monkeys attacked her in unison, and the one that replaced the first (and even with enthusiasm).
Gradually, all the monkeys were replaced, and there were five monkeys in the cage, which were not watered, but who did not allow anyone to get a banana. Why? Because that's the way it is. A very familiar situation, isn't it?
The theoretical development of the installation problem belongs to G. Allport (1935). His formulation of the concept of an attitude (as a state of psychological readiness, formed on the basis of experience, exerting a guiding, dynamic influence on the individual's reactions to all objects or situations with which he is associated) remains one of the most authoritative in foreign psychology. Later, this concept, supplemented and refined by various researchers, was interpreted as an "unconscious socially significant reaction", as a "state of readiness of thought, feelings and actions of a person in relation to any social object" or as "readiness for a positive or negative reaction in relation to to the corresponding objects. The most developed theory in Soviet psychology is the theory of the attitude of D.N. Uznadze and his students. Representatives of the Georgian school characterize the concept of attitude as an unconscious state that precedes a particular activity and determines its implementation.
A.G. Asmolov, trying to find significant points of contact between two leading psychological concepts: the theory of activity of A.N. Leontiev and the theory of installation by D.N. Uznadze, characterizes the concept of attitude as a multilevel education, “stabilizer of activity”, “factor of inertia of behavior”.
Depending on the direction, three types of attitudes are distinguished: operational, target and semantic, reflecting, respectively, three levels of regulation of human activity: methods - how I do, goal - what I do and meaning - why I do it (Fig. 23).
How quickly new attitudes are formed?
It is impossible to answer this question unequivocally. Much depends on the nature of the attitude: operational ones are formed faster than target or semantic ones. The psychophysiological characteristics of a person are important, which determine the dynamic characteristics of thought processes, the level of education and the ability to reflect.
The development of new technologies is forcing people to change their operating settings rather quickly. For many years, psychologists have been using the method of A. Lachins "Measure": a group for an individual solution is offered ten similar problems; the first five problems are solved using cumbersome calculations using all the data, the last five suggest a simpler solution without using all the data; one of the tasks contains the answer already in the condition. Under the influence of the learned method of solving the first five tasks and compliance with all procedural requirements (sequential problem solving, absence of pauses), an operational setting is usually formed, which does not allow a person to see the change in the conditions of subsequent tasks. In the 1970s-1980s. in study groups, the number of students who accepted this attitude reached 40%, in recent years they are extremely rare.
Operational settings change during training under the influence of speech influences, instructions, explanations, etc. All that is new, which is in the nature of practical recommendations, ready-made methods and techniques, is perceived as quite acceptable at almost any age. Especially if you apply adequate learning styles and methods. Operational attitudes are being overcome, and quite successfully, but in the learning process, and even more so in retraining, higher-level attitudes - target ones - "interfere".
Goals- this is the core that preserves the integrity of a person and in any circumstances allows him to remain himself. We can say this: the goal creates a person, it also preserves him. "Purpose: a conscious image of the anticipated result, towards the achievement of which the human action is directed"; the image of the “required future” (NA Bernshtein), which determines the integrity and direction of behavior and activity.
The process of goal-setting is complex and multidimensional; it is carried out simultaneously in different planes. There is still no definite answer to the questions of how exactly the process of accepting goals proposed from the outside by a person takes place, and how the process of internal goal-setting is built, although work in this direction has been going on for many years.
In foreign psychology, experimental studies of goal-setting go back to the Würzburg School (XIX century). In the development of its representatives, the emphasis was primarily on the connection between motivation, rational and emotional forms of cognition. Subsequently, this direction was continued and received a special resonance in the study of the process of goal-setting under conditions of uncertainty. It is the interaction of sensual and rational principles that allows a person to navigate life tasks, which are characterized by a large degree of uncertainty. If in solving technical problems the role of the rational principle acts as a decisive one, then in the problems of interpersonal interaction the emotional sphere takes the leading role.
Y. Habermas notes: "As long as the question" What should I do? " concerns pragmatic problems, our observations, research, comparisons and reasoning are of the kind that we, relying on empirical information, act on the basis of considerations of efficiency or with the help of other rules for solving problems. Practical reasoning moves here within the framework defined by the horizon of goal rationality, and its task is to find suitable technical means, strategies or programs. ... Such a guide to action says what "must" or what "must" be done in this case if we want to realize certain values or goals. However, once the values themselves become problematic, the question "What should I do?" takes us beyond the limits of goal rationality ”.
The mind operates with certainty. Where the sphere of the unknown begins, a person uses emotional assessments as a tool for goal-setting in his activities. They are inaccurate, and sometimes erroneous, but they allow a person to act. The process of human thought activity, and in particular goal-setting, is not fundamentally algorithmic, due to which a person is able to act in not completely defined conditions, - this is the conclusion made in his work by A.F. Kogan.
It is still believed that the most significant results in the field of experimental research on goal-setting were obtained by representatives of the school of one of the founders of gestalt psychology, the German psychologist K. Levin. Their experiments showed the presence of a connection between the spheres of goal-setting and reflection, the dependence of the choice of the complexity of tasks (goals) on the level of a person's aspiration.
It is customary to divide goals into two categories - those that are generated by the person himself, and those that are set to him from the outside, in particular, due to the working conditions.
One of the purposes of training is to transfer the student from the external method of goal-setting to the internal one. This happens, first, through the acceptance of external goals as our own; secondly, through the development of goal-setting methods. The second is not just preferable - this is a necessary condition for working in tough competition conditions, which forces us to respond flexibly to changing market conditions and focus on the future, on what does not yet exist, and only after creating it (new technology, material, method, etc. .), a person gets a chance to win. But learning to accept someone else's, for example, a new strategic goal, is not easy. What tasks does a person usually solve in the course of daily activities? The ones that were offered to him today? Nothing of the kind, a person always solves his problem, realizes his goal. "I understand that!" - he asserts.
Target attitudes are evoked by the goal and determine the stable nature of the course of action. If an action (striving for a goal) is interrupted for some reason, then target attitudes are manifested in the desire to complete the interrupted action, to achieve the intended goal, sometimes even when the objective need for it has already disappeared. Once a goal has been achieved, a person will prefer to reproduce it again instead of setting a new one. This substitution of goals occurs unconsciously.
Semantic attitudes are the most difficult to correct. In the process of life, a person develops this or that mentality, orienting him towards certain values and life meanings. A person is born and grows up in a particular society. Each society has its own "ideology" of behavior and system of rules, its own views and values, as well as samples of "good" and "bad". In the process of upbringing, a person assimilates social standards, which are transformed into his personal behavior, his personal views and values, i.e. into psychological attitudes. We can say this: standards and rules are a social phenomenon, and a person's personal attitudes are their psychological counterpart.
Semantic barrier- misunderstanding between people is a consequence of the fact that the same phenomenon has a different meaning for them. The discrepancy between meanings, statements, requests, orders creates obstacles for the development of interaction between partners. The most pronounced semantic barriers are manifested in situations of global changes affecting the foundations of human life, his values, the system of life rules. In this case, even realizing the correctness of the new requirements and accepting them at a conscious level, the person continues to act, relying on the old system of his personal meanings.
The semantic attitude is complex in its structure and content. It includes several components:
informational - a person's views on the world and the image of what he aspires to;
emotional-evaluative - likes and dislikes in relation to what is significant for a person;
behavioral - the willingness to act accordingly in relation to what has a personal meaning for a person.
With the help of semantic attitudes, a person joins the system of norms and values of a given social environment, provides himself with psychological protection when meeting a "stranger", asserts himself. In the process of repeated functioning, semantic attitudes turn into personality traits, therefore it is impossible to change them only by conviction. Even if very authoritative people convince. "Why do I need it? - the person asks the question and answers himself - I can't do it any other way. " Semantic attitudes are answers to numerous questions about “how to do, think, live rightly ...”. To touch the semantic attitudes of a person means to cause an emotional storm. They are guarded by powerful mechanisms of psychological defense, which instantly "work" when approaching "someone else's" gaze, experience, ideology.
Answering the question of what semantic attitudes prevent a person from achieving his goals both in his personal life and in production activities, foreign psychologists provide very impressive lists of reasons. Here are the most common.
1) Confidence that the causes of the problem lie “outside the person”. - The cause of problem situations is most often a person's own actions, so it's better to look for it in yourself.
2) The hope that the problem will go away by itself, "will somehow resolve."
- “If a person does not participate in solving a problem, then he participates in its creation” (E. Cleaver);
- Before solving a problem, you need to take responsibility for it, say to yourself: "This is my problem."
3) The difficulties that a person experiences in solving a problem are due to the objective complexity of the situation.
- Complexity is a subjective category, the roots of which lie in the inherent barriers, stereotypes, patterns of thinking. Inadequately assessed life experience and habitual ways of behavior and communication can act as such internal obstacles. It would be necessary to abandon them, but sometimes a person simply does not realize them.
4) Expectation of psychological help in a completely definite form - advice, instruction.
- There is no point in leaving your own decision-making and shifting it onto others. A person needs to master the role of a seeker and a creator, and the role of a passive follower, waiting for a clue at every step, is better left in the past.
5) To be a thinking person means always to be right or to be distinguished by wit.
- To be a thinking person means “to have a conscious desire to give birth to a qualitatively full-fledged thought” (E. de Bono).
6) There is only one correct solution, and it is this that should be sought.
- In life, just the opposite is required: the ability to navigate the infinite, to work with uncertainty, to look for one's own, and every time anew.
- It is possible to gain power over uncertainty, but first you need to get rid of the acquired limitations - attitudes that have begun to interfere.
- Rejection of old views, departure from the conquests of the past, disturbance of peace: this is not a quick success, this is a risk, this is pain, in other words - DEVELOPMENT.
The study of semantic attitudes using verbal test questionnaires is a difficult task. It is preferable to use projective techniques that allow you to look into the deep layers of the unconscious. However, verbal methods are most suitable for working on oneself, because they allow a person to make his own attitudes the subject of his consideration, analysis, and evaluation.
One of such techniques, which has proven itself well in practice, is the Dysfunctionality Scale (DFS). D. Berne revised the list of 100 most common self-defeating positions (installations), reducing it to 30 and adding five new ones. Using a five-point scale of the degree of "agreement - disagreement" with the proposed statements (fully agree, partly agree, neutral, partly disagree, completely agree), Berne suggested using a key (scoring) to determine the degree of psychological resistance and vulnerability. In fact, we are talking about the degree of expression, accentuation of certain beliefs.
The external coincidence of the terms "attitude" and "social attitude" leads to the fact that sometimes the content of these concepts is considered identical. Moreover, the set of definitions that reveal the content of these two concepts is really similar: "inclination", "directionality", "readiness". At the same time, it is necessary to precisely separate the sphere of action of attitudes, as Uznadze understood them, and the sphere of action of "social attitudes."
In Uznadze's concept, "an attitude is an integral dynamic state of the subject, a state of readiness for a certain activity, a state that is determined by two factors: the need of the subject and the corresponding objective situation." The mood for behavior to satisfy a given need and in a given situation can be consolidated in the event of a repetition of the situation, then a fixed setting arises, as opposed to a situational one. At first glance, it would seem that it is precisely about explaining the direction of an individual's actions under certain conditions. However, upon a more detailed examination of the problem, it turns out that such a formulation of the question in itself cannot be applied in social psychology.
The proposed understanding of the attitude is not associated with the analysis of social factors that determine the behavior of the individual, with the individual's assimilation of social experience, with a complex hierarchy of determinants that determine the very nature of the social situation in which the person acts. Installation in the context of Uznadze's concept is most of all concerned with the question of the realization of the simplest physiological needs of a person. It is interpreted as the unconscious, which excludes the application of this concept to the study of the most complex, highest forms of human activity. The very idea of identifying special personality states that precede her real behavior is present in many researchers. First of all, this range of issues was discussed by V.N.Myasishchev in his concept of human relations. The attitude, understood "as a system of temporary connections of a person as a personality-subject with all reality or with its individual sides, explains precisely the direction of the future behavior of the The difference from the attitude here lies in the fact that various objects are assumed, including social objects to which this relationship extends, and the most diverse situations that are very complex from a socio-psychological point of view. ...
During the formation of the personality in childhood, it was found that the orientation is formed as the internal position of the individual in relation to the social environment, to individual objects of the social environment. Although these positions may be different in relation to diverse situations and objects, it is possible to fix some general tendency in them, which dominates, which makes it possible to predict behavior in previously unknown situations and in relation to previously unknown objects. The orientation of the personality itself can also be considered as a special predisposition - the personality's predisposition to act in a certain way, covering the entire sphere of its life, up to the most complex social objects and situations. This interpretation of the orientation of the personality allows us to consider this concept as of the same order with the concept of social attitude.
2. TYPES OF INSTALLATION IN THE THEORY OF DN UZNADZE.
According to the concept of D.N.Uznadze, there are the following types of installation:
1) the primary setting, which is created on the basis of the unity of the actual need and the objective situation; such an attitude determines the emergence of all types of activities and experiences;
2) a fixed attitude, which arises on the basis of repeated repetition and as a result of this strengthening of the primary (actual) attitude; a fixed attitude acquires great personal weight when it is formed on the basis of a unity of need, which has great personal significance, and the corresponding situation (fixed attitudes can be unrealized and diffuse). The main feature of a fixed attitude is its dispositional nature: in an appropriate situation, it represents the potential for the emergence of a certain activity. The specified types of installation are constituent components of the structure of a complete (global) installation.
According to the theory of attitude, the plurality of mental life is formed into one integral structure by a specific subject, which at each moment of his activity is characterized by a certain attitude or such a mood, such a dynamic state that ensures the emergence of mental actions necessary for the correct reflection of the environment and the formation of actualized experiences into one integral structure of activity. The structure of activity is given in unity with the structure of the attitude, which unites both primary, actual, and fixed attitudes. The plurality of experiences, included in the activity and organized in the form of one wholeness, is a manifestation of the attitude. Therefore, at any given moment, a person as a subject of active activity is characterized by an attitude and a data system in unity with this attitude of mental properties and experiences, united by the structure of activity based on the attitude.
The structure of activity at each given moment is also formed under the influence of a fixed attitude specific to the individual, which is a disposition, which is in unity with the general laws. Therefore, the described structure always appears both as general and as individual, which is the basis for solving both the problem of personality structure and the typology of this structure.
On the basis of research devoted to the need to define the concept of "personality trait", several provisions can be formulated.
1. The personality trait as an explanatory concept has a real basis: without taking it into account, it is impossible to understand the internal logic of a person's purposeful behavior - his stability, the identification in the same situation of behavior similar in form and content; it will remain unclear why different people in the same conditions can be lazy, dexterous, skillful, envious, aggressive, friendly, etc.
2. The formed personality trait has a general character: a kind personality reveals kindness not only in any one situation, but under all similar circumstances. The property, being developed, gradually acquires autonomy ("functional autonomy") and thereby reaches the highest generalization. For example, a child first acquires the property of observing personal hygiene (washing his face and hands, brushing his teeth), which then turns into a general personality trait - the elimination of all dirt, the desire for cleanliness.
3. The fact that a personality trait determines the stability of activity, its identity and stability, indicates its dispositional and dynamic nature. Knowledge of this property allows one to predict how the subject will act in the future, in a new situation. The personality trait is the readiness to identify typical behaviors and experiences, whatever they may be; property always expresses a certain kind of long-term tendency - direction.
4. Through objective observation of behavior, clinical conversation, experiment, testing, it becomes possible to clarify all those signs that belong to personality traits. These signs of personality behavior can be measured, their psychological interpretation becomes possible. The established properties can be used to study the nature of the personality structure.
5. Personality traits are not isolated from each other. One and the same property, being included in different complexes of properties, acquires a peculiar shade. For example, aggression, revealed on the battlefield and coupled with lofty goals of the self (defense of the Motherland and the necessary courage and inflexibility), in the complex of the integral behavior of the individual acquires the sign of “humanity”; this cannot be said about aggression, which is a consequence of frustrations. Therefore, the dispositional nature of a property can be understood only in relation to the integral structure of the personality, with the configuration of all other properties.
6. A personality trait can be defined as an individual's belonging, as an individual property: there may be unique personality traits; personality can be assessed by the peculiarities of the relationship of its general properties (intraindividual analysis); by the properties it is possible to establish the differences existing between people (interindividual analysis); the study of properties is also possible from the point of view of their universality: how widespread is this or that property throughout society.
As is clear from the attitudes of special research existing in psychology, personality traits are attitudes of great personal weight, possessing both an exciting and a directing force for behavior. The aforementioned main features of a property fully encompass the concept of an installation, in particular, one of its types - a fixed installation. For example, let us consider separately the attributes of a property in relation to the attributes of a fixed installation.
One of the main features of a property as the basis for organizing behavior is that it mediates the effect of the object and the response: the "stimulus" does not go over into a characteristic action directly. What will be the behavior, what are the features of its content and form, is determined by the property or configuration of properties.
In the psychology of attitude, it is theoretically experimentally substantiated that the attitude of a person is a more general personally significant phenomenon than a property. It determines not only the characteristic specific activity for the person, but also any other activity. One of the types of attitude - a fixed attitude - is characterized by all the attributes that the attitude possesses in general. The existence of a fixed attitude is an indisputable fact. It can be worked out and called experimentally; over the functioning of an experimentally fixed installation, it is possible to carry out objective observation, make an assessment, measure the quantitative and qualitative aspects of its identification.
Once a fixed attitude is, as a rule, stable, it persists as a modification of the personality in a certain direction, as an opportunity, is revealed in a similar or analogous situation that caused it, and influences behavior. This property of a fixed attitude also indicates its dispositional nature. Once fixed, the attitude is also characterized by generalization. Z. Khojava showed experimentally that a fixed setting acts not only in a similar, but also in a different situation. For example, if a subject forms a setting for distinguishing values in circles of different sizes, then on the basis of this setting, he will illusoryly perceive not only equal circles, but equal triangles, equal ellipses, lines, etc. In other words, it was experimentally confirmed that the setting is characterized by irradiation and generalization, from which it follows that a fixed attitude is characterized by generalization. As you know, the course of a fixed attitude is characterized by constancy, strength, which marks human behavior. These signs of a fixed attitude determine the constancy of behavior, its identity, identity, stability, etc., that is, they perform the function that is attributed to the personality trait.
The attitude is created on the basis of the unity of the situation and the need and underlies the purposeful activity. And in this respect, the setting plays the role that is attributed to the property. At the same time, as noted, an attitude is a broader concept: it determines the integration of a person's mental life, and the role of a property is assumed by one of its types - a fixed attitude.
A fixed attitude can also serve as a motivational and guiding function. It is known that the attitude can be developed at the first mental level - on the basis of the unity of vital needs and the situation of their satisfaction, as well as at the level of objectification - at the junction of the needs of the "I" (higher needs) and an imaginary situation. For a person, this is mainly characteristic of the latter. In this respect, individual differences are possible: for some, higher needs are more powerful than vital ones, for others, on the contrary, the latter play a leading role in life.
In this regard, DN Uznadze noted that the past of each person is of decisive importance here, the situation in which his life proceeded and in which he was brought up, those impressions and experiences that had special weight for him. Undoubtedly, due to all this, each person has developed his own, different from others, fixed attitudes, which, in one way or another, with more or less clarity, are revealed and, under appropriate conditions, become the basis of readiness for action in a certain direction. It is precisely these attitudes that create a person's personality. They are the reason that for some people, the main source of energy is one system of needs, and for others, another. When a person faces the question of how to act, the following circumstance arises: of those possible actions that his mind considers expedient, only some attract him in some respect, only for some does he feel ready, only some he accepts as truly expedient ... The meaning of motivation lies precisely in the fact that he seeks and finds such actions that correspond to the basic, strengthened in life, attitude of the personality. "When the subject manages to find such behavior, he experiences it in a special way: he feels some attraction to him, experiences a readiness to fulfill it; This is exactly the experience that manifests itself in the act of decision in the form of a specific experience described above under the title" I really want "This experience clearly indicates that the subject has developed an attitude of certain behavior: the act of decision has taken place, and now the question concerns its implementation."
DN Uznadze clearly shows what is the connection between fixed attitudes of great personal weight (properties) and personality motivation. The creation of a motive presupposes the creation of an attitude corresponding to the behavior, however, what the content of such an attitude will be depends on the needs of the individual and, in particular, on the arsenal of attitudes of great personal weight fixed in the past.
For example, if the content of a person's fixed attitudes is of a social nature (affiliation, highly moral, etc.), then when she faces the question of how to act - to give priority to vital or moral impulses, he chooses highly moral behavior. The attitude created in the moral-semantic situation is easily included with the help of will, into the system of dispositional attitudes and needs. Behavior unfolds in accordance with this attitude.
Thus, fixed attitudes of great personal weight are the basis, an incentive phenomenon that determines what decision a person will make, what needs a person will turn to, in order to create an attitude in accordance with the moral-semantic situation - to make a decision and make this attitude relevant for the individual. "The success of the volitional act depends on whether the mental situation can evoke those attitudes that are the basis of volitional behavior ... whether the person has the ability to actualize the attitude under the influence of the given situation, that is, whether he has this attitude dispositionally. , it turns out that what is usually called character, in reality, should be a dispositional attitude of the personality, the ability to actualize certain attitudes. "
Here DN Uznadze emphasizes the fact that the set of properties in a person (character) is nothing more than a set of fixed dispositional attitudes. As you can see, these attitudes are characterized by those features that are attributed to the property. In this case, in comparison with the concept of a property, the concept of an attitude has the advantage of a greater personal weight, since for the development and fixation of the attitude of a person, appropriate conditions can be created, and its course can be turned into an object of direct observation. And most importantly, it can be empirically substantiated that the basis of stability, identity and stability of behavior is associated with the nature of an attitude created at the junction of needs and a situation, in particular, its characteristic features (constancy, stability, generalization, etc.) specific properties.
3. FORMATION OF THE INSTALLATION
social attitude predisposition psychology
The concept of a fixed attitude makes it possible to study the formation and genesis of these properties. It should be noted that, as DN Uznadze wrote, the child (undoubtedly, in an undeveloped form) contains those social needs that should emerge and form in the educational environment (according to Uznadze, in the age environment). This kind of data is not available in animals, therefore, the emergence and development of sociogenic needs is impossible for them.
It is from the child's upbringing environment, as well as from the cultural environment in which a person lives and creates, what needs will arise or will awaken in him and, most importantly, in what social environment he will have to satisfy them, that is, what fixed attitudes will be formed in the subject on the basis of these needs and the situation of their satisfaction.
According to DN Uznadze, it is absolutely impossible for an attitude to arise without the participation of an objective factor, an external situation, an attitude disposition of each of us; our character is formed under conditions of external influence, however, on the other hand, the setting cannot be created only by the environment, if the subject does not have certain needs, the setting presupposes a subjective factor. Needs have their own biological organic foundations, but most of human needs, their diversity were created in the process of his historical development: a person's needs depend more on his history than on the processes taking place in his body. "
The social need of a child, awakening in him in relationships with other people, under appropriate conditions can turn into a fixed attitude, for example, into a fixed attitude of affiliation, that is, under certain conditions it can acquire great personal weight and turn into a dispositional attitude, be included in the system values "I" and become the basis for the motivation of personality behavior. On the basis of needs, with a corresponding external situation, fixed attitudes of great personal weight can be formed, which will acquire all those signs that are characteristic of personality traits.
All of the above can be extended to the values of the self of the individual. It is known that there are many different views concerning the concept of "I" of a person, both in philosophy and in psychology; accepting or rejecting them altogether is equally difficult. Despite this diversity, most researchers, when revealing the content of the concept of "I", imply the unity of self-consciousness, self-image and the experience of identity in the course of spiritual life. We are interested in the conscious "I" of the personality as one of the most important components of its structure. To establish the character traits of a person, it is important to know 1) what a person considers belonging to his own "I", on which his consciousness is concentrated, 2) what he considers consistent and stable in himself, thanks to which he is convinced of the reality of his own personality, from the outside world, in the uniqueness of one's own "I", 3) what is the nature of the idea, more precisely, the conscious image (scheme) of oneself, how stable and at the same time dynamic is this scheme, 4) how is it connected with other systems an integral personality (by will, temperament, reason, etc.), finally, 5) what is the significance of it for the active adaptation of a person to the environment, and the integration of all personality systems.
For the study of the structure of the character of a personality, the most important is the person's knowledge of the peculiarities of the "scheme" of his own personality: what does the personality itself mean by his own "I" scheme. Researchers of the character of personality note that in this case, the most important thing is; what the personality considers a part of its own "I", what is steadily included in it, so that it is clearly experienced as belonging to the "I", that is, it is subject to its control. The personality has an interest in outwardly completely different objects and social phenomena (friends, children, favorite business, types of entertainment, cultural objects, art, abstract ideas, etc.). These interests combine in their own "I" and create a scheme of their own personality. The analysis of "I" leads us to the position that such a scheme arises, develops and is formed on the basis of the activation of the ability to objectify. A subject whose ability to objectify is impaired is an impulsive being devoid of the ability to self-regulate, control his own impulses and self-realization. In such a subject, a phenomenon called "ego" is disturbed. As mentioned, at the level of objectification, the subject faces problems, the solution of which requires the choice (at a conscious level) of such an action that not only meets the requirements of the environment and its own main goal, but also agrees with fixed attitudes of great personal weight (with the foundations of motivation), i.e. .e. adequate both to the conscious image of "I" and to the unconsciously presented bases of motivation, in the unity of which the conscious goal receives life-giving force.
According to the concept of D. N. Uznadze, as a result of the objectification of impulsive behavior, thinking resorts to will in order to include the attitude created at the conscious level into the system of the motivational foundations of the personality - fixed attitudes. It is here that the role of the activity of will as the most significant link of the "I" system manifests itself: the will is responsible for taking into account intimate values located in the region of the "I" of the individual - the choice of appropriate behavior based on the unity of the requirements of the environment and the internal inclinations of the subject. Undoubtedly, the view that will is the essence of self-consciousness is legitimate. Decrease or violation of the activity of the will means the destruction of the basis of the difference between one's own "I" and not "I". Objects, people, objective values are associated with their own "I" to the extent that they are controlled and obey the motives of the personality in a broad sense, on the basis of which the volitional act proceeds.
The image of one's "I", which includes the most intimate personal values (for example, ideals, loved ones, cultural values), is based on unconscious readiness - attitudes developed by the individual in the process of accumulating life experience, upbringing, and the impact of the social environment in general; they represent fixed attitudes of great personal weight. All character traits as dispositional attitudes determine the volitional behavior of the individual, especially the process of conscious decision; a person makes a conscious decision based on the activation of attitudes of great personal weight. The decision made by an affiliated person (affiliation is his personal property) is likely to proceed on the basis of a conscious motive consistent with such an attitude; the more consistent the conscious and unconscious personality schemes with each other, the more the personality is adapted. The more the conscious ideal "I" relies on fixed attitudes of great personal weight, the more integral the personality, the more controlled by the will of all components entering the region "I" of the personality, and the will - the power of the "I" - is firm, and its positive and negative functions succeed consciously manage all aspects of the personality. Weakness of will means disintegration of the "I", when the above two aspects of personality - conscious and unconscious - are separated, when the will fails to reconcile them, when there is a component (value) in the region of "I" that does not obey the control of the will.
11. The problem of attitude in psychology and sociology. The structure and functions of a social attitude. Social stereotypes and prejudices.
The concept of social installation. The value of the attitude research in the school of D.N. Uznadze.
In general, attitude is attitudea person to certain phenomena of the surrounding reality.
In its most general form, a relationship is understood as an interconnection, interdependence of any objects or their properties. Social attitudes are one of the mechanisms for regulating human behavior, i.e. how social experience manifests itself in the actions and deeds of a person.
It is necessary to separate the scope of the attitudes, as D.N. Uznadze, and the scope of "social attitudes".D.N. Uznadze: Installation - holistic dynamic state of readiness Sb to a certain activity, due to the need Sb and Ob -th situation (physiological needs). A fixed setting occurs when a given combination (need and situation) is repeated. According to Uznadze, there are 2 types of attitudes - fixed and situational. Setting in the context of Uznadze's theory concerns the implementation of the simplest physiological needs of people. In this theory, the attitude is interpreted as a form of manifestation of the unconscious, is not associated with the analysis of social factors ( SET).
Various approaches to the study of social attitudes in Russian psychology.
1) V.N. Myasishchev: the concept of relationships between people (there was no term setting). Attitude - a system of temporary connections of people as L-ty with all reality or with its individual parts, this is a predisposition to some kind of Ob -am, incl. and to the social.
2) L.I. Bozovic : the term "internal position of the individual" (direction of L-ty).When a personality is formed in childhood, the orientation of the personality is formed as an internal position in relation to the environment, to individual objects of the social environment. Allows you to predict the behavior of L-ty in relation to Ob -am, even previously unknown.
3) A.N. Leontiev: concept personal meaning- the subjective significance of some Ob ... If the object is significant, then the orientation of the personality changes in accordance with the personal meaning. Leont'ev's attitude is a personal meaning generated by the relationship between motive and goal.
Traditions of studying social attitudes in Western sociology.
W. Thomas and F. Znanetsky(1918), studied the adaptation of Polish emigrants in America - they established two dependencies, without which it was impossible to describe the adaptation process:dependence of the individual on social organization and dependence of social organization on the individual... They proposed to characterize the two sides of the described relationship using the concepts of "social value" (for the character of a social organization) and "social attitude", "attitude" (for the character of an individual) => for the first time in social-psychological terminology the concept was introduced"Attitude" (the individual's psychological experience of the value, meaning, meaning of a social object ", or as" the state of consciousness of the individual relative to some social value).
=> "boom" in the study of "attitudes" => several different interpretations of "A", There are many contradictory definitions of it. In 1935 g. G. Allport wrote a review article on the problem of attitudes research, in which he counted 17 definitions of this concept.Attitude was understood by everyone as:
A certain state of consciousness and nervous system,
Expresses readiness for reaction,
Organized on the basis of prior experience,
Provides directional and dynamic influence on behavior.
Thus, the dependence of the attitude on previous experience and its important regulatory role in behavior were established.
Lapierre's paradox.- traveled with Chinese students to hotels in America. Americans have a negative attitude towards people of a different race. The first time they did not refuse, and the second time they refused to settle. Output: there is a difference between attitudes towards the Chinese and actual behavior. Installation on an object exists, but does not work in real life. Explanation: Rokeach - suggested that noun e There are 2 installations (for the object - the Chinese and for the situation - maintenance, service) and one or the other is turned on. Katz - in different situations, a different component of the attitude manifests itself, then cognitive, then affective.
Failed to create a single model because: 1) all research in a laboratory: this simplifies research situations and divorces them from the real social context. 2) even if experiments are carried out in the field, explanations are still built only with the help of appeals to the microenvironment, in isolation from consideration of the behavior of the individual in a wider social structure. Output: The study of social attitudes can hardly be productive if only the proposed research norms are observed.
Social installation structure: Smith first spoke about the structure of U: *Cognitive component–Consciousness about-that social. attitudes (knowledge about the Ob-those) * Affective kom-nt - an emotional assessment of the Ob-that, a feeling of sympathy or antipathy towards him. * Behavioral - intentions associated with the object, patterns of possible behavior, expectations associated with the object.
Yadov's dispositional concept.The solution to Lapierre's paradox lies in his work. He did a lot of research, a very large empirical material and a large sample.Yadov identified 4 spheres of personality activity: 1. Family, 2. Small group, 3. Broader sphere of D (work, life, leisure), 4. Social-class structure (one ideology and culture).Highlighted the hierarchy of the situation (by the duration of existence):1. Subject situations, rapidly changing, 2. Group situations (more than 1.), 3. Stable conditions D, 4. The most durable, stable.
Main idea : people have a complex system of dispositions (predispositions = attitudes), cat. regulate his behavior and d-t. At the heart of the concept is Uznadze.
These dispositions form a hierarchy:
1. Elementary fixed installations (as in Uznadze, set ): need-family; regulates a behavioral act; sit-ia-subject.
2. Social fixed attitudes (attitudes): the need for communication in a specific group; regulates the actions of the individual; sit-ia group communication.
3. Basic social. installation: need; regulates the system of actions that form behavior in various spheres of life; sit-iya - professional
4. Value orientations of L-ti .: regulates the integrity of behavior, the very D personality. social activities
The dispositional concept of V.A.Yadov determines social behavior depending on the formation of personal dispositions.
Stages of the formation of social attitudes according to J. Godefroy:
1) up to 12 years old, the installation corresponds to the parental models;
2) from 12 to 20 years old they acquire a more specific form - associated with the assimilation of social roles;
3) from 20 to 30 years - the crystallization of social attitudes, the formation of a system of beliefs on their basis,
4) from 30 years - stability of Y, difficult to change.
Changing settings... The main thing is to show the unattractiveness of the target, and to form a positive reaction to the new object. Direct way (persuasive influence). Information should not be NS com to disagree with the existing one. There must be a double-sided feed (presentation in the form of a dialogue m / d two oppos n tami), taking into account the motivation and personality characteristics. + reinforcements.
- Behavioral tradition: the principle of learning - changing attitudes through a system of rewards and punishments.
- Cognitive tradition: the theory of cognitive correspondence - a change in U. occurs if there is a discrepancy in the cognitive structure of the bang.
- T. d-ty : objective social changes - U. changes when d-ti or the personal meaning of d-ti change.
The influence of a social attitude on human behavior. The influence of behavior on social attitudes.
The effect of lead on fatigue(in many cases): seeking to make a favorable impression on others in order to achieve e goals people demonstrate certain behavior. Also, our behavior often contradicts the existing attitudes, and then, justifying ourselves, we change the old attitudes, creating new ones (taking someone else's is bad - found 100,000 € - leaves them for ourselves).
Social stereotypes and their stability. National, ethnic, professional and gender stereotypes.
Stereotypes - simplified, schematized images of social objects, shared by a sufficiently large number of members of social groups. According to Lippmann, stereotypes these are orderly, culture-determined "pictures of the world" in a person's head, which, firstly, save his efforts in the perception of complex social objects and, secondly, protect his values, positions and rights.
Properties of stereotypes: 1) emotional and evaluative character 2) stability (but it is still relative: when relations between groups change or when new information arrives, their content and even direction can change). 3) consistency, or consensus (ideas shared by a sufficiently large number of individuals within social communities). 4) imprecision
A stereotype usually develops in conditions of a lack of information as a result of a generalization of personal experience and perceptions that are also accepted by society, very often biased.
Formed during the experience of social life (experience of social interaction O actions). A stereotype is a scheme, and we are dealing with real people. All stereotypes have "+" and "-" aspects. In mi R Simplified perception saves time, stereotypes turn negative side into a sieve of disadvantage.
At the cognitive level. Prejudice - nav i second opinion, no personal contact, negative experience on an emotional level. Overcoming prejudice: against O setting up a different experience. The stereotype is more flexible, the prejudice turns off consciousness.
Types of stereotypes: this nic, professional, national, gender, professional.
Ethnic stereotypes- relatively stable ideas about moral, mental, physical qualities inherent in representatives of different ethnic communities.
National stereotypes- this is a relatively stable opinion of a generalized character, always containing elements of assessments of a particular nation.
Professional stereotypesIs a personified image of the profession, i.e. generalized image of a typical professionalGender stereotypes- these are simplified, schematized, emotionally clearly colored stable images of men and women, usually extended to all representatives of a particular gender community, regardless of the personal characteristics of certain representatives.
A special trend in psychology is represented by the system of views of the Georgian psychologist D. N. Uznadze, his students and collaborators. This trend is known as the theory of installation.
The very fact of the attitude (the subject's readiness to perceive or a certain direction of action) was noted by psychologists even before Uznadze. However, in Uznadze's theory, an attitude is not a particular phenomenon that arises in the process of perception or activity, but a general psychological phenomenon. The attitude is understood as a universal phenomenon in the life of people, which plays the main determining role in it. The attitude in Uznadze's theory turns into a central explanatory psychological concept.
The starting point of psychology, according to Uznadze, is not mental phenomena, but the individuals themselves. Therefore, psychology should investigate, first of all, the subject, the personality as a whole. The phenomena of consciousness, studied by traditional psychology independently of the personality, should be considered only as further definitions of personality. According to Uznadze, needs play a fundamental role in the study of the vital activity of a person. To satisfy a need, an appropriate situation is necessary. There must be a means in the environment to satisfy the existing need. In the presence of a need and a means of satisfying it, the subject develops a special state, which can be characterized as a tendency, orientation, readiness to perform an act leading to the satisfaction of the need. This is the attitude - the readiness to perform a certain action. The setting, therefore, is a necessary defining link between the action of the external environment and the mental activity of a person.
According to Uznadze, the attitude is not reflected in the consciousness of the subject in the form of any independent experience, it is not a separate act of consciousness and, in general, a phenomenon of consciousness. At the same time, Uznadze considers the concept of the unconscious to be unnecessary, since its internal structure and essence remains undisclosed and is interpreted by analogy with conscious processes. Uznadze acknowledges Freud's merits in the development of problems associated with the unconscious mental. However, Freud's doctrine does not contain a general theory of the unconscious and a theory of the latter's relationship to behavior. Freud was clear about the functions of the unconscious, but the form of existence of the unconscious remained unclear.
Uznadze believed that knowing the functions performed by the unconscious mental, we can determine the form of its existence.
According to Uznadze's teachings, the scope of the unconscious psychic is so wide that it underlies all human activity, both internal and external. Uznadze's concept serves to clarify the ways of forming the structure and functions of this unconscious. In the subject, before each act of his behavior, a kind of dynamic state arises - an attitude that, while remaining unconscious, expediently, in accordance with both the structure and the objective content of a given situation, directs the development of the processes of consciousness and acts of practical behavior. After its realization in behavior and satisfaction of the need, this attitude ceases to exist, giving way to a different attitude.
Thus, according to the views of Uznadze and his students, the unconscious, which underlies the course of all mental life and determines the originality of the processes of consciousness, exists and acts in the form of attitudes. Cm.:
1. The unconscious. Nature, functions, research methods: In 4 volumes - T. 1. Tbilisi: Metsniereba, 1978.
2. Uznadze DN Psychological research. - M .: Nauka, 1966.
