What is aesthetic feeling. Types of Feelings: The emotions that govern our lives. Feelings of guilt and shame

Turning to an exposition of the psychology of aesthetic feeling, I would like first of all to note that at the present time interest in aesthetics is growing more and more, especially in comparison with the indifferent and even often hostile attitude that was so widespread until recently. In our time, on the contrary, aesthetic feelings and aesthetic needs are often pushed almost to the fore, an increased interest in art issues is manifested in society, whole world outlooks arise, which are based on an aesthetic worldview, ideals are created on the basis of aesthetic criteria, and, thus Thus, the feeling of beauty is seen as the main, or at least one of the main springs driving the development of mankind. In upbringing, aesthetic elements have again been put forward intensively in recent years. They point out that both in school and in the life of a child, not the routine and uniform environment of a modern school with its corridors and empty square classrooms should surround, but works of art, an elegant, albeit simple environment, in general such an environment that would develop in it from a young age joy of life and a sense of beauty. All this prompts me to dwell in more detail on the psychology of aesthetic feeling.

Like other higher feelings, the aesthetic sense is complex: it includes a number of different elements. Let's start with the simplest ones.

If we subject our aesthetic experiences to analysis, then very often we will encounter the circumstance that individual sensations, taken by themselves, give us pleasure. Pam likes bright or delicate colors in the picture, the soft sound of a French horn, the clear sound of a human voice. You left the room on a sunny summer day: the blue color of the sky, the bright green foliage of the trees, the chirping of birds, the scent of air filled with the scent of herbs, all these sensations - visual, auditory and olfactory - you like, are constituent elements of the overall aesthetic experience ... Why do we like looking at velvet and marble? Because the sight of them awakens in us the memory of the sensation we got when we ran our hand over soft velvet and smooth marble. Thus, although visual and auditory sensations play a predominant role in aesthetic experiences, nevertheless, other types of sensations are also of considerable importance here. Interesting in this respect is the statement made by the deaf-blind-mute girl Helen Keller. Deprived of sight and hearing from birth and therefore did not have the opportunity to learn speech, she nevertheless learned to read, completed a course in a secondary educational institution, even graduated from university, and all this with the help of only one touch. E. Keller's aesthetic feeling is also based on tactile and partly on olfactory sensations: she says that, feeling the figurine of Venus de Milo, she experienced extreme pleasure. In normal people, with all the senses, olfactory and gustatory sensations have, of course, significantly less aesthetic value. Gastronomy and perfumery cannot be called independent arts. But this does not prevent tactile, olfactory and gustatory sensations from playing an important auxiliary role, entering a complex aesthetic experience as additional elements.

A much more significant role in works of art is played by combinations of different sensations and the relationship between different kinds of sensations. Any ornament in which the usual colors - red, yellow, green and blue - and the usual lines - straight, broken, curved - are intertwined and combined in a complex combination, can make a fascinating impression, much stronger than these colors would make and lines taken separately.

The pleasantness or unpleasantness of individual sensations and their simplest combinations depends to a large extent on purely physiological conditions. Take, for example, the aesthetic impression produced by lines of various kinds.

The audience is offered two lines drawn on the table - a broken line and a curve, similar in their general appearance. From the survey it turns out that most people like the curve.

Generally speaking, we like curved lines, rounded shapes more than broken, angular ones. The reason, perhaps, is that our limbs move in a circle, thanks to the convex-concave arrangement of the joints. In order to make a broken movement, you need to use a certain effort, unusual and therefore unpleasant. On the other hand, other, associative elements can also be mixed here, which enhance or, conversely, weaken this impression. So, for example, the rounded forms of the human body are liked more than the bony ones, also because the idea of \u200b\u200bhealth is combined with roundness. Sometimes associative factors get mixed up, and then we start to like straight lines (wide, straight alley), sharp corners (bell tower spire), etc.

Further, the physical and physiological conditions underlying the pleasantness of sound intervals and musical chords are known: those intervals in which the number of tone fluctuations relate to each other as prime numbers (1: 2, 2: 3, etc.), we like, and vice versa.

A certain correctness or order (sometimes, it is true, very peculiar) in the combination of external impressions is also important. In visual perception, we like symmetry: impressions are arranged in the correct order, so that we have the same groups to the right and to the left. This also includes the pleasure of rhythm, that is, from correctly, evenly alternating impressions, whatever their content: auditory - in musical works, tactile - in the rhythmic movements of a dance or running, visual - when you look at the dancer or smoothly a moving person, etc. Zeising made a number of measurements on various works of art, over architectural monuments, sculptures, etc., and he established that in the vast majority of cases, the beauty of a known structure or the harmonious dimensions of a figure are determined mathematical ratios of parts in these objects. A particularly important role here is played by the so-called rule of gold division, according to which the whole should relate to the greater part as the greater part relates to the lesser. There is no doubt that many relations between the elements that make up aesthetic experiences are subject to a certain mathematically formulated regularity, and it is very possible that over time it will be possible to find a more general law that unites all these separate types of aesthetic experiences into one common whole.

By comparing the above examples of aesthetic stimulants, we can derive one principle that plays a very important role in aesthetics: we like unity in diversity. Indeed, in symmetry, the two different sides of an object are united by their identical relation to the centerline; in rhythm, unification is achieved through evenly repeating intervals between individual impressions; in the rule of gold division, dissimilar parts are also combined due to a known definite relationship to each other. The named principle appears even more clearly in complex aesthetic experiences, which will be discussed further.

However, the feeling of beauty is not yet exhausted by pleasant sensations and their harmonious combinations. The best proof of this is that the ugly is often included in works of art. It is enough to recall the ugly masks that adorn our buildings (how good are the disgusting chimeras in Notre Dame Cathedral!), Recall the tragic with its sufferings, which often give rise to the creation of high works of art, recall what Tolstoy says about fashionable pictures that are undoubtedly beautiful, but which no one will not be called works of art, etc. The reason is that in most aesthetic impressions, along with the objective factors that I just spoke about and which cause pleasant sensations and combinations of these sensations, it is necessary to note also others - associative, or subjective factors, which we will now proceed to consider.

Take, for example, the pleasant impression of the sight of an orange. Do you like him yellow, round shape, pleasant smell. But to all this is also added an equally pleasant memory of his taste. Finally, an orange can give you the idea of \u200b\u200bthe land where it grew, and when you imagine Italy with its blue sky, groves, sea, etc., then these ideas merge with the view of an orange in front of your eyes. into one common whole. When we see an ancient castle, then its forms may not be picturesque, not graceful, its smell - rot and destruction - can be downright unpleasant, and nevertheless, the general view of the castle can cause artistic pleasure, due to the fact that external impressions (sensations and their combinations) are joined by memories of the past of this castle, heroic deeds and tragic incidents, which he witnessed; all this together, shrouded in that haze of dreaminess, which is characteristic of memories of the past, gives a complex aesthetic experience, closely related to the view of the castle, which awakened all these poetic memories.

The question now arises, how great should be the role of this associative factor in aesthetic feelings, and are we not taking the wrong path here? In fact, if we go further along this path, then we can come to the conclusion that aesthetic pleasures are caused not by the form of works of art, but by the meaning, content that is embedded in them. In the end, we will come to a utilitarian view of art, according to which the meaning of a work of art lies only in the benefit that it can bring to humanity, and, of course, this benefit can be viewed in a variety of ways, in accordance with different kinds of worldviews. Thus, the utilitarians of the sixties recognized value for works of art only insofar as they could contribute to the improvement of social relations. Tolstoy appreciates a work of art only when it evokes a feeling of love for neighbors and for God with special power and brightness; the specifically aesthetic aspects of the work are relegated here to the background and, at best, are reduced to certain forms, thanks to which it is especially convenient to excite certain feelings in people. According to Tolstoy, artistic talent comes down to the ability to excite in others the mood that the artist himself is in this moment experiences, or as he says, infect another with his own feelings and mood; Once this goal has been achieved, nothing more is required from the form of a work of art.

However, one can hardly agree with this view. Analyzing works of art and the emotions they generate, one can note in them such aspects that are inherent in the aesthetic feeling in itself and cannot be reduced to other feelings and other, side goals. Here, first of all, it is necessary to note the very principle to which I have already indicated, speaking of elementary constituent parts aesthetic feeling, namely unity in diversity, harmony of parts, united into one common whole. This principle can be modified or, rather, expanded to include harmony between form and content, or the correspondence of purpose and means. When a poem is too long, when an artist uses too much strong means where it would be possible to achieve the effect with simpler techniques, you say that the work is not artistic. When a work of art does not correspond to its intended purpose, for example, a person builds a country house, and meanwhile gives it such a size and massiveness that does not correspond to country needs, then here again you find it anti-artistic lack of correspondence between the main purpose of the object and the means that used to achieve this. When too bulky, thick, heavy columns support a light canopy or a thin, slender colonnade carries an unbearable load, then here too you get the impression of inartisticity. Thus, in more complex works of art, you meet the same law of unity and proportionality, which has already been encountered at more elementary stages.

The correspondence between the goal and the means makes us experience the impression of purposefulness when contemplating a work of art, and, however, this purposefulness has a completely peculiar character: any side purpose is often completely absent, the work of art itself is already a goal. Therefore, they often say that the aesthetic sense is inherent in "expediency without consciousness of purpose." In this, the aesthetic feeling differs, for example, from volitional actions, in which a person always strives for something, tries to achieve something. True, works of art can also serve common goals, because in our life everything is so intertwined that individual aspects of our psyche are in close connection with other aspects, but aesthetic feelings cannot be completely reduced to other feelings, completely denying their independent meaning.

A special form of experience is represented by the highest feelings, which contain all the richness of truly human relationships.

Depending on the subject area, to which they relate, feelings are divided into moral, aesthetic, intellectual.

1. Moral, or moral feelings.

These are feelings experienced by people when they perceive the phenomena of reality and compare these phenomena with the norms developed by society. The manifestation of these feelings presupposes that a person has mastered the moral norms and rules of behavior in the society in which he lives. Moral norms are formed and changed in the process of the historical development of society, depending on its traditions, customs, religion, dominant ideology, etc. The actions and deeds of people corresponding to views on morality in a given society are considered moral, moral; actions that do not correspond to these views are considered immoral, immoral.

For example, moral feelings include a sense of duty, humanity, benevolence, love, friendship, patriotism, sympathy, etc. The immoral ones include greed, selfishness, cruelty, etc.

It should be noted that in different societies, these feelings may have some differences in content.

2. Moral and political feelings.

This group of feelings manifests itself in emotional relationships to various public institutions and organizations, as well as to the state as a whole. One of the most important features of moral and political feelings is their effective nature. They can act as motivating forces for heroic deeds and actions. Therefore, one of the tasks of any state system has always been and remains the formation of such moral and political feelings as patriotism, love for the Motherland, etc.

3. Intellectual feelings .

Intellectual feelings are called experiences that arise in the process of human cognitive activity. The most typical situation that generates intellectual feelings is a problem situation. Success or failure, ease or difficulty of mental activity cause a whole range of experiences in a person. Intellectual feelings not only accompany the cognitive activity of a person, but also stimulate, enhance it, affect the speed and productivity of thinking, the content and accuracy of the knowledge gained. The existence of intellectual feelings - surprise, curiosity, curiosity, a sense of joy about the discovery, a feeling of doubt about the correctness of the decision, a sense of confidence in the correctness of the proof - is a vivid evidence of the interconnection of intellectual and emotional processes. In this case, feelings act as a kind of regulator of mental activity.

4. Aesthetic feelings.

This is an emotional attitude of a person to beauty in nature, in people's lives and in art. Observing the objects and phenomena of reality around us, a person can experience a special feeling of admiration for their beauty. A person experiences especially deep feelings when perceiving works of fiction, musical, visual, dramatic and other types of art. This is due to the fact that both moral and intellectual feelings are specifically intertwined in them. The aesthetic attitude is manifested through different feelings - delight, joy, contempt, disgust, longing, suffering, etc.

It should be noted that the considered division of feelings is rather arbitrary. Usually, the feelings experienced by a person are so complex and multifaceted that it is difficult to attribute them to any one category.

Many authors refer to the highest manifestation of feelings passion - another type of complex, qualitatively unique and found only in humans, emotional states. Passion is an alloy of emotions, motives, feelings, concentrated around a certain type of activity or object. S. L. Rubinshtein wrote that "passion is always expressed in concentration, concentration of thoughts and forces, their focus on a single goal ... Passion means an impulse, enthusiasm, orientation of all aspirations and forces of the individual in a single direction, their concentration on a single goal" ...

friendship

Selective attachments find their most striking embodiment in the phenomenon of friendship. J.-J. Rousseau wrote that "the first feeling to which a carefully educated young man is susceptible is not love, but friendship." K.K. Platonov considers friendship as a complex moral feeling, the structure of which includes: the need to communicate with the subject of friendship, reinforced by habit, emotional satisfaction in communication; memories of joint activities with him and its results; joint empathy, past, existing and possible; emotional memory; call of Duty; fear of loss; prestigious (usually idealized) assessment of it. According to Platonov, the feeling of friendship for an object of the opposite sex enters into the feeling of sexual love, but may not be associated with it.

It should be emphasized that, as one of the types of attraction, friendship has specificity. If sympathy and love can be one-sided, then friendship cannot be. She suggests interpersonal attraction, that is, the manifestation of friendly feelings on both sides. Only in this case, friendship can fulfill the functions of satisfying emotional needs, mutual cognition, social interaction and dialogue between individuals, which takes on the character personal (intimate and trusting) relationships. In addition, friendship in comparison with sympathy, attraction, love has a more conscious, pragmatic character.

M. Argyll notes that friendship in the hierarchy of human values \u200b\u200btakes a higher place than work and leisure, but is inferior to marriage or family life. However, in different age groups, this ratio can vary. It is most important for young people, from adolescence to marriage. Friendship becomes highly important again in old age, when people retire or lose loved ones. In the interval between these ages, friendship is less important than work and family.

The reasons for friendship.M. Argyll notes three reasons for establishing friendly relations:

1) the need for material assistance and information, although friends provide it to a lesser extent than family or colleagues;

2) the need for social support in the form of advice, sympathy, confidential communication (for some married women friends are more important in this respect than husbands);

3) joint activities, common games, community of interests.

I.S. Cohn cites such reasons: needs the subject, prompting him to choose one or another partner; partner properties,stimulating interest or sympathy for him; features of the interaction process, conducive to the emergence and development of paired relationships; objective conditions such interaction (for example, belonging to a common social circle, group solidarity).

According to Argyll, women have more intimate friendships than men, are more likely to self-disclose, and have more intimate conversations. Men are more likely to work together and play together with friends.

Criteria for choosing friends.In many works, the question is discussed - on what grounds (by similarity or by difference) friends are chosen. I.S. Cohn believes that a number of circumstances need to be clarified before deciding on this issue.

First, what class of similarities are we talking about (gender, age, temperament, etc.). Secondly, the degree of the alleged similarity (complete or limited). Thirdly, the meaning and meaning of this similarity for the personality itself. Fourth, the volume, the breadth of the range of similarities. The similarity of friends can be limited to one characteristic, or it can manifest itself in many. The definition of similarity or dissimilarity also largely depends on how a person represents himself and his friends and what they really are.

Numerous socio-psychological studies show that the orientation toward similarity in social attitudes clearly prevails over the orientation toward complementarity. The overwhelming majority of people prefer to be friends with people of their age, gender, social status, education, etc. Similarity of basic values \u200b\u200band interests is also desirable. True, when it is not about social attitudes and demographic characteristics, the results obtained are not so unambiguous.

People are often completely different in their mental disposition. An open and impulsive person can choose a closed and reserved person as his friend. The relationship between such friends gives each of them the maximum opportunity for self-expression with minimal rivalry; at the same time, together they form a couple with a greater variety of personality traits than either individually. However, friends are rarely the exact opposite of each other. Friendship couples that have existed for a long time are usually characterized by common values, views, hopes and opinions, both with respect to each other and in relation to other people.

Rules of behavior for friends.M. Argyll and M. Henderson established general rules of conduct, which are considered the most important for the continuation of friendly relations and non-observance of which leads to their rupture and divided them into four groups.

Exchange:

- share news about your successes;

Show emotional support;

Volunteer to help in times of need;

Try to make your friend feel good in your company;

Return debts and services rendered. *

Intimacy:

Confidence in and trust in others.

Relationship to third parties:

- protect a friend in his absence;

Be tolerant of the rest of his friends *;

Do not criticize a friend in public **;

Keep confidential secrets **;

Do not be jealous or criticize other personal relationships. **

Coordination:

- do not be annoying, do not preach *;

Respect a friend's inner peace and autonomy. **

The most important are the six rules that are not marked with asterisks, as they meet all four criteria. The rules marked with one asterisk meet three criteria, but do not distinguish close friends from less intimate ones. They are important for normal levels of friendship, but in especially close relationships they can be broken: close friends are not considered favors, they forgive intolerance towards mutual acquaintances and even some importunity. Rules marked with two asterisks meet two criteria. They are considered important and their violation can lead to the end of the friendship, but the assessment of the depth of friendship does not depend on them. They are not specific only to friendship, but are present in other personal relationships as well.

Children's friendship.Canadian psychologists B. Bigelow and D. La Guipa, studying children from 6 to 14 years old, found that friendship in terms of normative expectations goes through three stages of development:

1) situational relations in connection with general activities, territorial proximity, mutual assessment;

2) the contractual nature of the relationship - strict observance of the rules of friendship and high requirements for the character of a friend;

3) "internal psychological" stage - personal traits are of paramount importance: fidelity, sincerity, the ability to intimacy.

In young children, friendship is unstable, situational. For example, L.N. Galiguzova found that young children often cannot recognize among three peers the one with whom they had previously met 15 times in private and played for a long time. Children's friendship can end over a trifle, since they do not know how to put up with the private shortcomings of their friends.

First falling in love not only does not weaken the need for a friend, but often intensifies it because of the need to share your experiences with him. But as soon as mutual love appears with its psychological and physical intimacy, she stops discussing with friends until love relationship there will be no difficulties.

Love

Currently, D. Lee has developed a more detailed typology of love:

1) eros - passionate love-infatuation, striving for complete physical possession;

2) ludus - hedonistic love is a game that does not differ in the depth of feelings and relatively easily admits the possibility of betrayal;

3) storge - calm, warm and reliable love-friendship;

4) pragma - arises from a combination of ludus and storge - rational, easily controllable; love of convenience;

5) mania - appears as a combination of eros and ludus, irrational love-obsession, for which insecurity and dependence on the object of attraction are typical;

6) agape - selfless love-self-giving, a synthesis of eros and storge.

For women, storgic, pragmatic and manic manifestations of love are more characteristic, and erotic and especially human love is more characteristic of young men.

Love for a specific person, according to E. Fromm, should be realized through love for people (humanity). Otherwise, he believes, love becomes superficial and casual, remains something small.

Love is an intimate affection with great power so great that the loss of the object of this attachment seems irreplaceable to a person, and his existence after this loss is meaningless.

There are several types of love.

So, they talk about active and passive forms of love; in the first case, they love, and in the second, they allow themselves to be loved.

They divide short-term love - falling in love and long-term - passionate love. E. Fromm, K. Izard and others talk about the love of parents for their children (parental, maternal and paternal love), children for their parents (filial, daughter), between brothers and sisters (sibling love), between a man and a woman (romantic love), for all people (Christian love), love for God. They also talk about mutual and unrequited love.

Love manifests itself in constant concern for the object of love, in sensitivity to its needs and in the readiness to satisfy them, as well as in the aggravation of the experience of this feeling (sentimentality) - in tenderness and affection. It is difficult to say what emotional experiences accompany a person when he shows tenderness and affection. This is something obscure, almost ephemeral, practically defying conscious analysis. These experiences are akin to a positive emotional tone of impressions, which is also quite difficult to verbalize, except that a person has something pleasant, close to a light and quiet joy.

Sexual love.E. Fromm gives the following abstract definition of this love: this is the relationship between people, when one person considers the other as close, related to himself, identifies himself with him, feels the need for rapprochement, unification; identifies with him his own interests and aspirations and, which is very important, voluntarily spiritually and physically gives himself to another and seeks to mutually possess him.

R. Sternberg developed a three-component theory of love.

The first component of love is intimacy, a sense of closeness, manifested in a love relationship. Lovers feel connected to each other. Intimacy has several manifestations: joy that a loved one is near; the desire to make the life of a loved one better; the desire to help in difficult times and the hope that a loved one also has such a desire; exchange of thoughts and feelings; the presence of common interests.

Traditional courtship practices can interfere with intimacy if they are purely ritualistic and devoid of sincere exchange of feelings. Intimacy can be destroyed by negative feelings (irritation, anger) arising during quarrels over trifles, as well as the fear of rejection.

The second component of love is passion. It leads to physical attraction and sexual behavior in relationships. Although sex is important here, it is not the only kind of need. The need for self-esteem remains, the need to receive support in difficult times.

The relationship between intimacy and passion is ambiguous: sometimes intimacy evokes passion, in other cases, passion precedes intimacy. It also happens that passion is not accompanied by intimacy, and intimacy is not accompanied by passion. It is important not to confuse attraction to the opposite sex with sexual desire.

The third component of love - decision-commitment (responsibility). It has short-term and long-term aspects. The short-term aspect is reflected in the decision that a particular person loves another, the long-term aspect is in the obligation to preserve this love ("an oath of love until the grave").

And this component is not unambiguously correlated with the previous two. To demonstrate possible combinations, R. Sternberg developed a systematics of love relationships.

These kinds of love are extreme cases. Most real love relationships fall into the gaps between these categories, since the different components of love are continual rather than discrete.

Table 12.2 Systematics of types of love by R. Sternberg

Note: + the component is present, - the component is absent.

Parents' love for children.

E. Fromm (1998) points out the differences between maternal and paternal love.

Mother's love unconditional - the mother loves her child for what he is. Her love is not subject to the control of the child, since it cannot be earned from the mother. Mother's love is either there or not.

Paternal love conditioned - the father loves because the child lives up to his expectations. Father's love is controlled - it can be earned, but it can also be lost.

At the same time, Fromm notes that we are not talking about a specific parent - mother or father, but about maternal or paternal principles, which to a certain extent are represented in both parents.

An important characteristic of parental love, especially of the mother, is emotional availability. This is not just the physical presence or physical closeness of the parent, it is his willingness to give the child his warmth, his tenderness, and subsequently understanding, support, and approval.

Parents 'concern for their children is determined by the parents' sensitivity to the child's needs and their willingness to satisfy them. The range of manifestation of this sensitivity is extremely large - from importunity to complete indifference.

Jealousy

Jealousy is a suspicious attitude of a person towards an object of adoration associated with a painful doubting his loyalty, or knowledge of his infidelity.

Jealousy involves three sides (triadic relationships) into its orbit: the first is the jealous, the second is the one who is jealous, and the third is the one (those) to whom they are jealous, perceived by the jealous as a rival, claiming, like him, for the love of parents , boss's favor, etc.

P. Titelman defines the differences between envy and jealousy as follows: the feeling of envy arises when an individual does not have what he passionately wants; a feeling of jealousy arises when, due to the presence of a rival, an individual is afraid of losing what he has and what is significant to him.

If envy in most cases is considered a human flaw, then jealousy, which has objective grounds, is a socially approved feeling and is encouraged by society.

E. Hetfield and G. Walster believe that the reason for the emergence of jealousy is a feeling of offended pride and awareness of violation of property rights.

Jealousy for the object of sexual love.A special position is occupied by jealousy, manifested in the relationship between the sexes. It is associated with a feeling of love and the reason for it is the fact that someone loves not us, but another. In this case, the lover's own dignity becomes wounded, offended. This jealousy is especially acute. One has only to imagine that his beloved is not dating him, but with someone else, as he begins to experience unbearable mental pain. At such moments, a person is permeated by the thought that he has forever lost something very valuable, that he was abandoned, betrayed, that no one needed him, and his love turned out to be meaningless. The emerging consciousness of one's loneliness and inner emptiness is accompanied by disappointment, sadness, resentment, shame, annoyance, anger. In such a state, a person is not able to behave rationally.

Jealousy is related to a person's previous confidence in love. loved one and with his idea that only he has the right to possess it. The result of this is an encroachment on the personal freedom of a loved one, despotism, suspicion. Affective outbursts of jealousy are frequent, which can lead to tragic consequences. Because of jealousy, love turns into hate. Then a person seeks to inflict suffering, insult and humiliate a loved one in any way. Such hatred often remains suppressed and manifests itself in the form of abuse of the beloved.

A. N. Volkova classifies reactions of jealousy on several grounds: according to the criterion of the norm - normal or pathological; by substantive criterion - affective, cognitive, behavioral; by the type of experience - active and passive; in intensity - moderate and deep, heavy.

Normal, non-pathological reactions are distinguished by the adequacy of the situation, are understandable to many people, accountable to the subject, and often controlled by him. Pathological jealousy has opposite characteristics.

Cognitive reactions are expressed in the desire to analyze the fact of treason, look for its cause, look for the culprit (I am a partner - a rival), build a forecast of the situation, trace the background, that is, create a picture of the event. Cognitive reactions are more pronounced in persons of an asthenic disposition, intellectuals.

Affective reactions are expressed in the emotional experience of betrayal. The most characteristic emotions are despair, anger, hate and contempt for oneself and a partner, love and hope. Depending on the personality type, affective reactions occur against the background of melancholic depression or angry agitation. The predominance of affective reactions is observed in people of an artistic, hysterical, emotionally labile disposition.

Behavioral responses come in the form of struggle or refusal. The struggle is expressed in attempts to restore relations (explanations), to keep a partner (requests, persuasions, threats, pressure, blackmail), to eliminate the opponent, to make it difficult to meet with him, to attract attention to oneself (evoking pity, sympathy, sometimes coquetry). In case of refusal to restore relations, the connection with the partner is cut off or acquires a distant, official character.

With active reactions, characteristic of stenic and extroverted individuals, a person seeks the necessary information, openly expresses his feelings, seeks to return a partner, and competes with a rival. With passive reactions, asthenic and introverted individuals do not make persistent attempts to influence relationships, jealousy flows inside a person.

Sharp and deep reactions of jealousy are the result of the complete surprise of infidelity against the background of a successful marriage. Cheating hurts the gullible and devoted person more. Jealousy becomes protracted if the situation is not resolved, the partner behaves inconsistently, without making a definite decision.

Volkova notes that enhancing the reaction of jealousy is facilitated by:

1) inert mental processes that impede awareness, response and action in a given situation;

2) an idealistic attitude, in which a person does not allow any compromises in his love life;

3) a pronounced proprietary attitude towards things and persons;

4) overestimated or underestimated self-esteem; with an overestimated self-esteem, a despotic version of the experience of jealousy is observed, with an underestimated one, a person is acutely experiencing his own inferiority;

5) loneliness, poverty of interpersonal relationships, in which there is no one to replace the partner;

6) a person's sensitivity to betrayals of various kinds in other partnerships;

7) strong dependence on a partner in achieving any vital goals (material security, career, etc.).

There are several types of jealousy: tyrannical, from oppression, converted, vaccinated (Linchevsky, 1978).

Tyrannical jealousy occurs in stubborn, oppressive, self-righteous, petty, emotionally cold and alienated subjects. Such people make very high demands on others, which can be difficult or impossible to fulfill and do not cause sympathy from the sexual partner, but also lead to cooling in the relationship. When such a despotic subject tries to find an explanation for this cooling, then he sees the reason for it not in himself, but in a partner "who has a foreign interest, a tendency to infidelity."

Jealousy from an infringement of pride manifests itself in people with an anxious and suspicious character, with low self-esteem, self-doubt, easily falling into melancholy and despair, inclined to exaggerate troubles and dangers. Uncertainty in himself, a sense of his own inferiority makes him see a rival in everyone he meets. And if it seems to him that the partner did not show him due attention, he immediately has doubts, suspicions about the loyalty of a loved one.

Converted jealousy represents the result of his own tendencies in infidelity, its projection onto a partner. The line of reasoning of a jealous person is as follows: since thoughts of marital infidelity are in him, why can't others, including his partner, have them? Usually, converted jealousy arises in the place of extinguished love, since lingering love is rarely combined with dreams of other sexual partners. This type of jealousy is the most mundane, prosaic.

Instilled jealousy is the result of a suggestion from the outside that "all men (women) are the same", hints about the infidelity of a spouse.

There are the following ways to overcome jealousy:

1) distraction to something meaningful for a person (study, work, childcare, hobbies);

2) development of a new outlook on things, the formation of the morality of forgiveness, conscious control over the reactions of jealousy;

3) learning lessons, looking for their own mistakes, building new relationships with a partner, possibly of a different type;

4) devaluation of a partner and a situation of betrayal - comparing them in a number of other values, life attitudes;

5) in the event of the collapse of the partnership - the search for a new partner, a change in lifestyle, the formation of other interpersonal relationships.

Sibling rivalry.

In childhood, everyone experienced emotional experiences associated with jealousy. At first, the child loves his mother and father passively, while he soon begins to understand that he cannot always get a reciprocal feeling from them: after all, even the most tender mother and the most caring father leave the child for each other from time to time. This convinces the child that every time. when he wants someone to love him, he risks being abandoned.

The first reactions of jealousy are observed already in nine-month-old children. They are primitive and stereotyped. The child screams, cries, jerks when he sees how the mother approaches another child, picks him up. Less often, the child is jealous of the adult, for example, when the mother pretends to hug the father. A child can be jealous of a doll, he throws it if he saw how her parents stroked it. At ten months, seeing how the mother puts her head on his father's shoulder, tries to stick between them.

At the age of one year and nine months, the girl does not want a dress for her doll to be sewn. At the age of two and a half years, hostile actions due to jealousy are already restrained, instead of them, experiences, resentment, and puffing of cheeks appear.

Then, at the age of two and a half to five years, jealousy appears when the child already has active love for the parents, which turns out to be "unrequited" by them; the mother or father did not reciprocate his feelings, did not treat his feelings with the desired trepidation. The child feels rejected, isolated, "thrown out the door of a home in which others enjoy love and happiness." This experience lays the foundation for all subsequent neurotic disorders and other psychopathologies in a given person.

Boys develop a positive oedipus complex (named after the mythical character of King Oedipus, who unknowingly married his mother and killed his father). It manifests itself in sexual attraction to the mother and in jealousy of the father, whom the boy begins to consider as a rival in the struggle for his mother, despite the tender feelings towards him. A negative Oedipus complex is also possible, when a boy develops love for his father and hatred for his mother. Sometimes both forms are combined and an ambivalent attitude towards parents arises.

Girls have electra complex (named after the mythical princess who, in revenge for the murder of her beloved father, participated in the murder of her mother, who was guilty of his death). Girls develop sexual attraction to their father and jealousy of their mother, who is seen as a rival. Like boys, this complex can be positive, negative (love for the mother and hatred for the father) and mixed.

Children also develop jealousy towards their brothers and sisters. For a first-born, the appearance of a second child in a family is a serious test. After all, the older child is deprived of the monopoly on the attention and admiration of the parents. Children with the same gender and small age differences (two to three years) increase the likelihood of jealousy and competition for the mother's attention. However, how much this jealousy will develop depends on the sensitivity of the parents, their ability to show the elder that he is still desirable and necessary for them.

It can be assumed that the feeling of jealousy has phylogenetic roots. One of the circus trainers said that when a young leopard begins to perform tricks of an old one, the latter becomes jealous.

Hostility

Feelings of hostility are hostile attitudes towards someone with whom a person is in conflict. A. Bass understands hostility as a state of narrow focus, always having a definite object. I am more impressed by the understanding of hostility by K. Izard, who defines it as a complex affective-cognitive trait, or personality orientation, which corresponds to my understanding of feeling as an emotional setting. The feeling of hostility arises from the negative experience of communication and interaction with any person in a conflict situation. It occurs more easily in resentful and vengeful people. The feeling of hostility is manifested in the “aggressive mood”, “aggressive state” (ND Levitov), \u200b\u200bthat is, in the emotions of anger (anger), disgust and contempt with their inherent experiences and expression, which can lead to aggressive behavior.

However, A. Bass notes that hostility and aggressive behavior are combined, although often, but by no means always. People can be in hostile relations, but do not show any aggression, if only because its negative consequences for the "aggressor" are known in advance. There is also aggression without hostility, when, for example, a person is robbed without feeling any hostile feelings towards him.

K. Izard also emphasizes that aggressive verbal and physical actions do not include hostility, and this is true. Hostile (aggressive) behavior can arise from a feeling of hostility, be motivated by it, but this feeling itself is not. Hostility is not yet aggression (although it is difficult to imagine that in relation to the object of enmity a person does not show indirect verbal aggression, that is, he did not complain about him to anyone, did not say any taunts about him. Obviously, these authors are talking about the manifestation straight physical and verbal aggression).

K. Izard even believes that hostility is a difficult motivational state, but here, in my opinion, he makes a mistake. The feeling of hostility can participate in the motivation of hostile behavior (aggression or, conversely, avoidance of contact) as one of the motivators, but it is not able to replace the entire motivational process and motive.

A strong feeling of hostility is referred to as hatred. It is possible to hate not only individuals, but also humanity as a whole, although strong disappointment applies only to a specific person.

Spite- this is frustration, the result of frequent suppression of resentment and anger, a form of chronic hostility to everyone and everything, bitterness. This is a chronic state of irritation and extreme, reaching cruelty, anger. (hate: see also section 12.8). Anger develops gradually and often has its origins in infancy. Thus, inmates of orphanages are often “embittered children”. Children become embittered as a result of the abuse of parents and adults. They treat others with the same indifference, callousness, heartlessness, and sometimes cruelty, with which they were once treated. For them, anger is designed to cover up unbearable resentments and disappointments.

Xenophobia.Hatred directed against certain groups of the population, for example against such minorities as foreigners or emigrants, is designated as xenophobia, in which, as P. Kutter writes, “there is not a trace of passion, but only open hatred and a thirst for destruction ...”. Some women and men, as a result of unsuccessful love, may develop hatred of all persons of the opposite sex.

Hatred also manifests itself in spitefulness, that is, in an angry, irritable, picky attitude towards someone, as well as in slander,especially if the hatred is latent.

At the same time, the feeling of hatred can be beneficial for a person. However, for a moral assessment of this feeling, it is important to know what or to whom the hatred is directed.

Cynicism.A specific manifestation of contempt is cynicism, that is, a person's persistent contempt for the culture of society, for its spiritual, and especially moral, values. The term "cynicism" owes its origin to the ancient Greek philosophical school of the Cynics, who held their debates on an Athenian hill called Kynosarges. In Latin, the word "cynics" began to sound like "cynics." The cynics preached contempt for public culture, complete independence of a person from society, a return to the "natural" state. Cynicism manifests itself both in words and in deeds: an outrage at what constitutes the culture of mankind, a mockery of moral principles, ridicule of ideals, a violation of human dignity. Thus, cynicism is not only an emotional but also a moral feeling.

Man has created truly powerful means of knowing nature and himself - art and science, which have absorbed all forms human cognition... Art, science and technology cannot but influence people's perception of the world and their psychology. The horror of the world opens up before man, and he strives for the aesthetic ideal. Through correlation with norms, ideals, assessment is carried out - the definition of the value of what is happening.

The main categories of consciousness of an archaic person are formed by mythological ideas. Science has developed an idea of \u200b\u200bmyths as structures expressing "unusual" reality, as symbolic systems. K.G. Jung * believed that these are the primary forms that organize mental contents, the schemes according to which the thoughts and feelings of all mankind are formed - archetypes - the functional structures of the collective unconscious. Archetypal ideas become the result of the actualization of archetypes, the value consciousness of humanity is formed. The most important concepts of value consciousness were the concepts of good and evil, beauty and ugliness. This orientation system plays an important role in the individual and social consciousness. Modern views on the structure of the Universe and human nature make tough conclusions about the responsibility of people for all life on earth. Art leads to the same conclusions, but it is not about proof, but about an emotional display. Art can make us live thousands of other people's lives.

The question of the presence of a person's creativity and the need for self-realization has been relevant since ancient times. Artistic creativity begins with heightened attention to the phenomena of the world, the ability to keep them in memory and comprehend. An important psychological factor in artistic creation is memory, not "mirror", but selective. Creative process unthinkable without imagination, which allows you to reproduce representations and impressions. The imagination has many varieties: philosophical and lyrical - in Tyutchev, phantasmagoric - in Hoffmann, romantic - in Vrubel, painfully hypertrophied - in Dali, real-strict - in Fellini, etc.

In artistic creation, subconscious processes play a special role. The American psychologist F. Berron examined a group of writers and came to the conclusion that among representatives of this profession, emotionality and intuition are highly developed and prevail over rationality. 89% of the subjects turned out to be "intuitive personalities", while in the control group (people far from artistic creativity), individuals with developed intuition turned out to be 25%. F. Schelling wrote: “... the artist involuntarily and even contrary to his inner desire is involved in the creative process. Just as a doomed person does not do what he wants or what he intends to do, but fulfills inscrutably prescribed by fate, in whose power he is, the position of the artist seems to be the same ... a force acts on him that draws the line between him and other people , encouraging him to depict and express things that are not fully open to his gaze and have an inscrutable depth. " The creative process is especially fruitful when the artist is in a state of inspiration - psychological condition clarity of thought, intensity of its work, richness and speed of associations, insight life problems, a mighty "outburst" of accumulated experience and its direct inclusion in creativity. Inspiration generates extraordinary creative energy. In a state of inspiration is achieved optimal combination intuitive and conscious beginnings in the creative process.

Freud believed that in the act of creativity, socially irreconcilable principles are squeezed out of the artist's consciousness and thereby the elimination of real life conflicts, that unsatisfied desires are stimuli of fantasy. W. Schiller wrote: "The unconscious in conjunction with the mind makes a poet-artist." The manifestation of a person's personality traits contributes to the development of individuality, emphasizes his unique and inimitable traits.

Aesthetic feelings are a product of a person's cultural development. These feelings are manifested in the corresponding assessments, in artistic tastes and are experienced as emotions of aesthetic pleasure and delight, or, in the case of a mismatch of their object with the aesthetic criteria of the personality, as emotions of contempt, disgust, etc. The level of development and content of the aesthetic feelings of a person is an important indicator of his social maturity. For example, a sense of humor presupposes the presence of a positive ideal in the subject, without which it degenerates into negative phenomena: vulgarity, cynicism, etc. If a person abandons culture in favor of his pleasures, he loses protection and may perish. If he refuses pleasures in favor of culture, then this is a certain burden falls on his psyche. Freud writes about it this way: "... any culture should be built on coercion and on the rejection of drives, and upon understanding it, it turns out that the center of gravity is shifted from material interests to the psyche."

Freud was one of the first to try to see in the dominant human instincts the need for self-realization, which is localized in the unconscious and manifests itself in the "desire for pleasure." This instinctive need for self-realization is opposed by the cultural requirements created by society (traditions, rules, etc.). Their main function is to suppress "instinct-like" needs. The peculiarity of self-realization is that, by satisfying it in single acts (writing a novel, creating a work of art), a person cannot satisfy her completely.

Considering the culture of the individual, one can distinguish its internal and external sides. A person presents himself to others, but this impression can be deceiving. Sometimes, behind outwardly refined manners, there is a cynical individual who despises the norms of human morality. At the same time, not being proud of his cultural behavior, a person can have a rich spiritual world and a deep inner culture, intelligence, which presupposes a high level of aesthetic development, moral reliability, honesty and truthfulness, disinterestedness, a developed sense of duty and responsibility, loyalty to his word, a highly developed sense of tact and, finally, that complex alloy of personality traits, which is called decency. This set of characteristics is far from complete, but the main ones are listed.

Aesthetic feelings reflect and express the subject's attitude to various facts of life and their display in art as to something beautiful or ugly, tragic or comic, sublime or vulgar, elegant or rude. Life in the natural and social world gives rise to a complex range of feelings and experiences in people. These include feelings of insecurity, helplessness, loss, powerlessness, loneliness, sadness, grief, emotional distress, a person fears, worries about his loved ones, for his country, for life on Earth. At the same time, people have a whole spectrum of "light" emotions: a feeling of happiness, harmony, fullness of bodily, mental strength, satisfaction with their achievements and life. The ability to be guided in the perception of the phenomena of the surrounding reality by the concepts of beauty, love of beauty lies at the heart of aesthetic feelings. They are manifested in artistic values \u200b\u200band tastes. A person endowed with a developed aesthetic taste, when perceiving works of art, pictures of nature, or another person, experiences pleasant or unpleasant emotions for him, the range of which is wide - from feelings of pleasure and delight to disgust. In the philosophical and psychological literature, the spiritual beginning of a person is associated with the social and creative-constructive nature of his activities, with the inclusion of a person in the world of culture. The inner world of a person has diverse connections and relationships with the entire world of culture; here it acquires meaning and a spiritual dimension.

In psychology, it is customary to distinguish the following types of feelings:

1. Lower senses
2. Higher senses
3. Moral feelings
4. Aesthetic feelings
5. Intellectual senses
6. Social feelings

Definition 1

Feeling is called the personal emotional attitude of a person to the objects and phenomena around him experienced in a varied form.

In psychology, the following main types are distinguished:

Lower senses

Associated with the satisfaction of the basic physiological needs of a person. For example, feelings of satiety or thirst, security or peace.

Higher senses

They show the inner world of a person. They are associated with the satisfaction of human social needs. They form the basis of all types of human life, facilitating or hindering social activities.

Higher senses are subdivided into moral, aesthetic, intellectual and social feelings.

Moral

They show a person's attitude to people, to the Fatherland, to their family, to themselves. These feelings include love, humanism, respect for the Motherland, responsiveness, loyalty, and dignity. The variety of moral feelings reflects the brightness of human relationships. These feelings govern human behavior.

Aesthetic feelings

They represent the experience of feeling something beautiful. These feelings are most vividly manifested when contemplating works of art or natural manifestations. They develop in accordance with the understanding of art. So, for example, music forms musical feelings in a person. These include the following feelings: humor, sarcasm, sensitivity, creative inspiration, a sense of the exalted state.

Intellectual senses

They are based on the knowledge of people, the desire to satisfy curiosity, the search for truth and the solution of specific mental problems. These include interest, curiosity, a sense of mystery, doubt, bewilderment.

Social feelings

Provide emotional interaction of a person with the world around him. This includes such common feelings as: justice, honor, duty, responsibility, patriotism, solidarity, as well as shyness, confusion, boredom, greed.

Let's consider some of them in more detail:

Passion Is a powerful, exciting feeling that prevails over other aspirations of a person. It leads to the fixation of a person's attention, all his forces on the object of passion.

Hatred - This is a firm, proactive negative feeling aimed at an event that opposes a person's needs, views and values. This feeling is capable of evoking not only a critical assessment of one's object, but also destructive activity directed to it. Before the formation of hatred, there is usually a strong discontent or a regular accumulation of negative emotions. The real or apparent cause of events can then become an object of hatred.

Humor associated with a person's ability to notice contradictions or inconsistencies in the surrounding world. For example, noticing and exaggerating the opposite of positive or negative sides in some person. Humor implies a friendly feeling (a combination of fun and good). Something positive, pleasant is implied behind the laughter-inducing imperfections.

Irony compares the positive with the negative, the ideal opposes fantasy and reality, or correlates the noble with the funny. A person feels his superiority over an object that evokes an ironic feeling in him. And evil irony can turn into mockery or mockery.

Cynicism, this is a feeling that refutes the values \u200b\u200bof life, as well as disregard for the foundations of public morality, the rules of behavior. Cynicism hides an inability to make efforts on the part of a person.

Sarcasm shows sarcastic derision, malicious irony, or derisive remarks. Underlying sarcasm is an inability to act.

Aesthetic feelings are an emotional state associated with an attitude to beauty in the surrounding social and natural environment. Beautiful can be like physical objectsand the relationship between people. Aesthetic feelings merge with moral feelings (hence the expression "beautiful deed", "wonderful character", etc.). V.G. Belinsky rightly said that beauty is the sister of morality. Moral education is inextricably linked with the education of an aesthetic attitude to reality. The actions of people are assessed simultaneously as an ethical and an aesthetic phenomenon, they are experienced both as beautiful (or ugly) and as good (or evil). Depending on the properties of phenomena, aesthetic feelings are expressed as the experience of the beautiful or the ugly, the tragic or the comic. The concept of beauty changes depending on changes in the development of society. So, the norm of the external beauty of a woman among the peasants was a dense, large physique, physical strength, a blush as a sign of health, etc. The ideal of a secular beauty was completely different.

The feeling of the tragic is associated with the reflection of the contradiction between necessity and possibility, with the reflection of the confrontation between the beautiful and the ugly. Sorrow over tragic events activates the progressive activity of people. The tragic evokes hatred of base phenomena.

The feeling of the comic is based on the discrepancy between this or that social phenomenon, people's actions and the objective properties of things: new versus old, content - form, real essence of a person - his opinion of himself, etc.

Reflection of phenomena as tragic and comic, funny and sad depends not only on what a person perceives, but also on his aesthetic, moral positions, the prevailing system of assessments. Laughter on any trifling matter, and even more so in connection with circumstances unpleasant for other people, is not aesthetic, it testifies to a lack of understanding of the funny, to the absence of a genuine sense of humor.

The experience of beauty in art is expressed in a state of artistic pleasure. It depends on systematic communication with the beautiful, on the aesthetic knowledge of a person, his artistic assessments and tastes, emotional excitability, impressionability, understanding of the relationship between the content and form of a given work, artistic style and method.

Works of art are one of the most powerful sources of human emotional experience, they shape a person's attitude towards life.

The emotional impact of art is based on the fact that genuine art reveals the essence of phenomena, manifests this essence in a directly perceived form.