What is a reflex types of reflexes the meaning of reflexes. Conditioned and unconditioned reflexes. Inhibition of conditioned reflexes

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The term "reflex" was introduced by the French scientist R. Descartes in the 17th century. But to explain mental activity, it was applied by the founder of Russian materialistic physiology, I.M.Sechenov. Developing the teachings of I.M.Sechenov. IP Pavlov experimentally investigated the features of the functioning of reflexes and used the conditioned reflex as a method for studying higher nervous activity.

All reflexes were divided by him into two groups:

unconditional;
conditional.

Unconditioned reflexes

Unconditioned reflexes - innate reactions of the body to vital stimuli (food, danger, etc.).

They do not require any conditions for their production (for example, salivation at the sight of food). Unconditioned reflexes are a natural reserve of ready, stereotyped reactions of the body. They arose as a result of a long evolutionary development of this animal species. Unconditioned reflexes are the same in all individuals of the same species. They are carried out with the help of the spinal and lower parts of the brain. Complex complexes of unconditioned reflexes are manifested in the form of instincts.

Figure: 1. The location of some functional areas in the human cerebral cortex: 1 - the area of \u200b\u200bspeech formation (Broca's center), 2 - the area of \u200b\u200bthe motor analyzer, 3 - the area of \u200b\u200banalysis of oral verbal signals (Wernicke's center), 4 - the area of \u200b\u200bthe auditory analyzer, 5 - the analysis of written verbal signals, 6 - area of \u200b\u200bthe visual analyzer

Conditioned reflexes

But the behavior of higher animals is characterized not only by congenital, i.e., unconditioned reactions, but also by such reactions that are acquired by a given organism in the process of individual life activity, i.e. conditioned reflexes... The biological meaning of the conditioned reflex lies in the fact that numerous external stimuli that surround the animal in natural conditions and in themselves are not of vital importance, preceding food or danger in the animal's experience, the satisfaction of other biological needs, begin to act as signals, by which the animal orients its behavior (Fig. 2).

So, mechanism of hereditary adaptation - an unconditioned reflex, and the mechanism of individual changeable adaptation is a conditioned reflex, developed when vital phenomena are combined with accompanying signals.

Figure: 2. Scheme of the formation of a conditioned reflex

a - salivation is caused by an unconditioned stimulus - food;
b - excitement from a food stimulus is associated with a previous indifferent stimulus (light of a bulb);
c - the light of the bulb became a signal of the possible appearance of food: a conditioned reflex was developed to it

The conditioned reflex is developed on the basis of any of the unconditioned reactions. Reflexes to unusual signals that are not found in a natural environment are called artificial conditioned. In laboratory conditions, many conditioned reflexes can be developed to any artificial stimulus.

I.P. Pavlov associated the concept of a conditioned reflex the principle of signaling of higher nervous activity, the principle of synthesis of external influences and internal states.

Pavlov's discovery of the main mechanism of higher nervous activity - the conditioned reflex - became one of the revolutionary achievements of natural science, a historically turning point in understanding the relationship between the physiological and the mental.

The discovery of complex mechanisms of the human brain's activity, the identification of the patterns of higher nervous activity began with the knowledge of the dynamics of formation and changes in conditioned reflexes.

reflexes) R. is the least complex motor reaction of C. n. from. to the sensory input signal, carried out with minimal delay. R.'s expression is an involuntary, stereotyped act, determined by the locus and the nature of the stimulus causing it. However, over pl. R. can be carried out conscious control. R. can be caused by stimulation of any sensory modality. There are very many R. Instead, for several. With specific examples, we will illustrate those principles that are applicable to all R. The simplest reflex is the myotatic reflex, or the muscle stretch reflex. This reflex can be triggered in any skeletal muscle, although the most famous example is the knee reflex. Anat. the basis of the myotatic reflex is a monosynaptic (with one synapse) reflex arc. It includes a sensory terminal organ, a sensory nerve fiber with its cell body in the dorsal root ganglion, a β-motoneuron, on which the sensory axon forms a synapse, and the axon of this α-motoneuron, returning to the muscle, from which the sensory fiber comes. The muscle spindle serves as a sensory terminal organ in the muscle stretch reflex. The muscle spindle has muscle endings, called. intrafusal fibers, and the central, non-muscle region associated with the ending of the afferent nerve. Intrafusal fibers are innervated by β-motoneurons of the anterior roots of the spinal cord. The higher centers of the brain can influence the muscle stretch reflex by modulating the activity of β-motoneurons. This reflex is triggered by stretching the muscle, which leads to an increase in the length of the muscle spindle and, as a result, to an increase in the frequency of generation of action potential in the sensory (afferent) nerve fiber. The increased activity in the afferent fiber enhances the discharge of the target β-motoneuron, which causes a contraction of the extrafusal muscle fibers, from which an afferent signal comes. When the extrafusal fibers contract, the muscle shortens and the activity in the afferent fibers decreases. There are also more complex reflex arcs, including one or several. intercalary neurons between the afferent and efferent parts of the reflex. An example of the simplest polysynaptic (with more than one synapse) reflex is the tendon reflex. The sensory terminal organ - the Golgi body - is located in the tendons. An increase in the load on the tendon, usually caused by a contraction of the muscle attached to it, is an exciting stimulus, which leads to stretching of the Golgi bodies and the appearance of impulse activity in them, widespread. according to acc. afferent fiber. The afferent coming from the tendon sensory terminal organ ends on an intercalary neuron in the spinal cord. This interneuron has an inhibitory effect on the β-motoneuron, decreasing the activity in its efferent axon. As this axon returns to the muscle attached to the stretched tendon, the muscle relaxes and the stress on the tendon is reduced. The stretch reflex and the tendon reflex work in concert to provide the basic mechanism for rapidly regulating the degree of muscle contraction. These R. are useful for quick adaptations to changing the position of the leg, when people. you have to walk on uneven ground. Of course, other polysynaptic spinal Rs also participate in locomotion. These Rs include many more interneurons in the structure of the reflex arc. The neurological basis of these complex R. is formed by divergent (from one neuron to several) and convergent (from several neurons to one) connections of intercalary neurons. An example of the action of these R. is given to us by a person advancing with a bare foot on a sharp object and reflexively withdrawing a wounded leg. The sensory input here is pain. Painful afferent fibers go to the spinal cord and form synapses on interneurons. Some of these interneurons excite? -Motoneurons, which cause the flexor muscles of the injured leg to contract, pulling the leg up, however, other interneurons contribute to the inhibition of motoneurons serving the extensor muscles of the same leg. This allows the leg to rise quickly and smoothly. Dr. neurons receiving pain input direct axons through the midline of the spinal cord, excite the extensor motor neurons of the opposite leg, and inhibit the motor neurons that innervate its flexors. This leads to the fact that the intact leg regains rigidity and provides support at the moment when the injured leg is pulled upward. On top of that, interneurons also relay information. into the upper and lower parts of the spinal cord, causing intersegmental R., to-rye coordinate the contraction of the muscles of the trunk and upper limbs. Monosynaptic and polysynaptic spinal R. form the basic mechanism for maintaining and adapting posture. The motor systems of the brain affect the spinal cord through the input circuits leading to the interneurons and β-motoneurons. Thus, changes in cerebrospinal R. may indicate a pathology in the motor systems of the brain. An example of this is hyperreflexia associated with injury to the lateral spinal lobe or damage to the motor regions of the frontal lobe. There are a number of visual R. As an example, you can name. pupillary reflex, manifested in the constriction of the pupil in response to the illumination of the eye with bright light. This reflex requires intact retina, optic nerve, midbrain and III pair of cranial nerves, but it does not depend on the integrity of the nuclei of the external geniculate bodies or the visual cortex. R. also can be caused by stimulation of sensory input from internal organs. The baroreceptor reflex is an example of such an autonomous reflex. An increase in blood pressure stretches receptors in large vessels near the heart. This enhances the flow of afferent impulses to the nuclei of the solitary pathway of the medulla oblongata. Neurons in the nuclei of the solitary pathway switch impulses to the motor nuclei of the vagus nerve and transmit to the spinal cord, causing a decrease in heart rate and blood pressure. It is very difficult to acquire conscious control over this reflex, but on its basis it is possible to develop a conditioned reflex using the method of classical conditioning. See also Acetylcholinesterase, Electrostimulation of the nervous system, Endorphins / enkephalins, Models of neural networks, Neurotransmitters, Sensomotor processes M.L. Woodruff

REFLEX

reaction to excitation of receptors - mediated by the nervous system, the natural response of the body to a stimulus. It is caused by the influence of a certain factor of the external or internal environment on the analyzer. It manifests itself in muscle contraction, secretion release. The reflex principle in the activity of the brain was formulated by the French philosopher R. Descartes, although the term itself entered science later.

The manifestation of reflexes is unclear in protozoa, maximum in coelenterates, average in worms and insects, and gradually disappears in animals of a higher degree of development, but even in humans it does not disappear completely.

Reflexes are distinguished between unconditioned and conditioned.

Reflex

In psychology, the term has several meanings, ranging from a technical definition (innate behavior, manifested without conscious effort and does not change depending on the situation), to nonspecific (an act carried out under the influence of an "impulse"). In the theory of the classical formation of conditioned reflexes, it is defined as "an undiagnosed association between stimuli and corresponding responses." Thus, salivation at the sight of food is an unconditioned reflex.

REFLEX

jerk) - the body's response to a particular impact, carried out through the nervous system. For example, the knee reflex (knee jerk) (see. Reflex patellar) consists in the implementation of a sharp "tossing" movement of the leg, resulting from the contraction of the quadriceps femoris muscle in response to stretching when tapping on its tendon. Determination of this, as well as some other reflexes, such as the Achilles and the extensor ulnar reflex, allows you to control the state of the spinal nerves that are involved in the implementation of these reflexes.

REFLEX

reflex) - the response of the body to certain influences carried out through the nervous system. So a painful stimulus (for example, a pinprick) will lead to the emergence of a finger withdrawal reflex even before the brain sends a message about the need for muscles to participate in this process. See Conditioned Reflex, Patellar Reflex. Plantar reflex.

Reflex

Word formation. Comes from lat. reflexus - reflected.

Specificity. It manifests itself in muscle contraction, secretion, etc.

Conditioned reflexes

Unconditioned reflexes.

REFLEX

1. In general, any relatively simple, "mechanical" reaction. Reflexes are usually viewed as species-specific, innate patterns of behavior that are largely outside the control of will and choice and show little variation from individual to individual. This value is preferred in specialist literature. 2. Not acquired connection between response and stimulus. This meaning simply expands the former to include in the definition the presence of a stimulus that induces a reflex. 3. A more metaphorical meaning is any unconscious, impulsive action. This value is considerably wider than the previous ones, although it is generally not recommended. Many authors use the terms reflex and reaction interchangeably, despite the fact that the term reaction does not carry any connotations of the species-specific, innate qualities that the concept of reflex has (at least in its basic meaning). Therefore, many compound terms are used in the literature with either of these two generic names; for example, the so-called startle response is often referred to as the startle reflex. See reaction.

(lat. reflexus - turned back, reflected) - the response of the body to certain influences carried out through the nervous system. Distinguish R. unconditioned (inborn) and conditional (acquired by the body during the course of individual life, which have the property to disappear and recover). Fr. the philosopher R. Descartes was the first to point out the reflex principle in the activity of the brain. N.D. Naumov

Excellent definition

Incomplete definition ↓

REFLEX

from lat. reflexus - turning back; in a figurative meaning - reflection) - the general principle of regulating the behavior of living systems; motor (or secretary) act having accommodated. value determined by the action of signals on receptors and mediated by nerve centers. The concept of R. was introduced by Descartes and served the task of explaining deterministically, within the framework of mechanistic. picture of the world, the behavior of organisms based on the general laws of physics. interactions of macrobodies. Descartes dismissed the soul as he explains. motor principle activity of the animal and described this activity as the result of a strictly natural response of the "machine-body" to external influences. Based on the mechanistically understood principle of R., Descartes tried to explain certain psychic. functions, in particular learning and emotion. All subsequent neuromuscular physiology was under the decisive influence of the doctrine of R. Some followers of this doctrine (Dilli, Swammerdam) as early as the 17th century. expressed a guess about the reflex nature of all human behavior. This line was completed in the 18th century. La Mettrie. Ch. enemy deterministic. view of R. came out vitalism (Stahl and others), arguing that not a single organic. the function is not carried out automatically, but everything is controlled and controlled by the sentient soul. In the 18th century. Witt discovered that dep. a segment of the spinal cord is sufficient for the implementation of an involuntary muscular reaction, but he considered a special "sensitive principle" to be its determinant. The problem of the dependence of movement on sensation, used by Witt to prove the primacy of feeling in relation to muscle work, is materialistic. the interpretation was given by Gartley, who pointed out that sensation really precedes motion, but it itself is due to a change in the state of moving matter. The opening is specific. signs of neuromuscular activity prompted naturalists to introduce the concept of "forces" inherent in the body and distinguishing it from other natural bodies ("muscle and nervous strength" Haller, "nervous strength" Untser and Prohaska), and the interpretation of force was materialistic. Creatures. contribution to the further development of the doctrine of R. was made by Prokhask, who proposed a biologist. R.'s explanation as an expedient act, regulated by a sense of self-preservation, under the influence of which the organism evaluates external irritations. The development of the anatomy of the nervous system led to the discovery of the mechanism of the simplest reflex arc (Bell-Magendie law). There is a scheme of localization of reflex pathways, on the basis of a cut in the 30s. 19th century matures classic. the doctrine of R. as the principle of the spinal centers, in contrast to the higher parts of the brain. It was founded by Marshall Hall and I. Müller. This is purely physiological. doctrine exhaustively explained the definition. category of nervous acts by the impact of an external stimulus on a specific. anatomical structure. But the idea of \u200b\u200bR. as a mechanic. "blind" movement, predetermined by anatomical. the structure of the organism and not depending on what is happening in the external environment, forced to resort to the idea of \u200b\u200ba force that selects from a set of reflex arcs the ones needed in the given circumstances and synthesizes them into a holistic act according to the object or situation of action. This concept has been subjected to drastic experiment. -Theoretical. criticized with materialistic. positions Pfluger (1853), who proved that the lower vertebrates, devoid of a brain, are not purely reflex automata, but change their behavior with changing conditions, which along with the reflex function there is a sensory function. The weak side of Pfluger's position was the opposition of R. to the sensory function, the transformation of the latter into the finite will explain. concept. Sechenov took R.'s theory to a new path. The former is purely morphological. R.'s scheme he transformed into a neurodynamic one, bringing to the fore the connection center. processes in nature. groups. Feeling of varying degrees of organization and integration was recognized as a regulator of movement - from the simplest sensation to the dismembered sensory, and then the mind. an image that reproduces the objective characteristics of the environment. Accordingly, the afferent phase of the interaction of the organism with the environment was not thought of as mechanical. contact, but as the acquisition of information that determines the subsequent course of the process. The function of the centers was interpreted in a broad biological sense. adaptation. Move. activity acted as a factor that has an inverse influence on the construction of behavior - external and internal (the principle of feedback). In the future, a major contribution to the development of physiological. ideas about the mechanism of R. introduced Sherrington, who studied the integrative and adaptive originality of nervous acts. However, in the understanding of the psychic. functions of the brain he adhered to dualistic. views. IP Pavlov, continuing Sechenov's line, experimentally established the difference between unconditioned and conditioned R. and discovered the laws and mechanisms of the reflex work of the brain, which forms physiological. basis of psychic. activities. Subsequent study of the complex will accommodate. acts supplemented the general scheme of R. with a number of new ideas about the mechanism of self-regulation (N. A. Bernshtein, P.K. Anokhin and others). Lit .: Sechenov I. M., Physiology of the nervous system, St. Petersburg, 1866; Bessmertny B.S., One Hundred Years of the Bell-Magendie Doctrine, in: Archive of Biol. Sciences, vol. 49, no. 1,?., 1938; Konradi G.P., On the history of the development of the doctrine of R., ibid., Vol. 59, no. 3, M., 1940; Anokhin P.K., From Descartes to Pavlov, M., 1945; Pavlov I.P., Fav. works, M., 1951; Yaroshevsky MG, History of psychology, M., 1966; Gray Walter W., Living Brain, trans. from English, M., 1966; Eckhard C., Geschichte der Entwicklung der Lehre von den Reflexerscheinungen, "Beitr? Ge zur Anatomie und Physiologie", 1881, Bd 9; Fulton J. F., Muscular contraction and the reflex control of movement, L., 1926; Fearing F., Reflex action. A study in the history of physiological psychology, L., 1930; Bastholm E., The history of muscle physiology, Copenhagen, 1950. M. Yaroshevsky. Leningrad. The current state of the theory of radiation The advances in the physiology of the nervous system and the close contact of general neurophysiology and physiology of higher nervous activity with biophysics and cybernetics have greatly expanded and deepened the understanding of radiation at the physicochemical, neuronal, and systemic levels. Physico-chemical. level. The electron microscope showed a fine chemical mechanism. transfer of excitation from neuron to neuron by emptying the vesicles of the transmitter into the synaptic. cracks (E. de Robertis, 1959). At the same time, the nature of the excitation wave in the nerve is determined, as 100 years ago, by L. German (1868), in the form of physical. current action, short-term. electric impulse (B. Katz, 1961). But along with electrical, metabolic is taken into account. excitation components, eg. "sodium pump" that generates electricity. current (A. Hodgkin and A. Huxley, 1952). Neural level. Even C. Sherrington (1947) linked some holy islands of simple spinal R., for example. reciprocity of excitation and inhibition, hypothetically. circuits for connecting neurons. I. S. Beritashvili (1956) on the basis of cytoarchitectonic. data made a number of assumptions about various forms of organization of neurons of the cerebral cortex, in particular about the reproduction of images of the external world by the system of stellate cells of the spectator. analyzer of lower animals. The general theory of the neural organization of reflex centers was proposed by W. McCulloch and W. Pete (1943), who used the apparatus of mathematical. logic for modeling the functions of nerve circuits in rigid-determiners. networks of formal neurons. However, pl. Holy Islands of higher nervous activity do not fit into the theory of fixed nerve networks. Based on the results of electrophysiological. and morphological. studying the relationship of neurons in the higher parts of the brain, the hypothesis of their probabilistic and statistical organization is being developed. According to this hypothesis, the regularity of the course of the reflex reaction is provided not by the unambiguous path of signals along fixed interneuronal connections, but by the probabilistic distribution of their flows over sets. paths and statistical. way to achieve the final result. Chance in the interaction of neurons was suggested by D. Hebb (1949), A. Fessar (1962) and other researchers, and W. Gray Walter (1962) showed a statistic. the nature of conditional R. Often, nerve networks with fixed connections are called deterministic, opposing them to networks with random connections as indeterministic. However, stochasticity does not mean indeterminism, but, on the contrary, provides the highest, most flexible form of determinism, apparently, it will exclude the underlying Holy Island. plasticity R. Systemic level. The system of even a simple unconditional R., for example. pupillary, consists of a number of self-regulating subsystems with linear and nonlinear operators (M. Klines, 1963). Assessment of the correspondence of acting stimuli and the "nervous model of stimulus" (E.N.Sokolov, 1959) turned out to be an important factor in the biologically expedient organization of R. Taking into account the mechanisms of self-regulation by feedback, the presence of which was written by Sechenov (1863), the structure of R. in modern cybernetic aspect began to represent not in the form of an open reflex arc, but as a closed reflex ring (N.A. Bernstein, 1963). Recently, there have been discussions about the content of the concepts of signaling, reinforcement, and temporal connections of conditional R. Thus, P.K. structures for controlling the results of action E. A. Asratyan (1963) emphasizes the qualities. differences of conditional R.'s connections from short-term. reactions of the type of beating and dominant. Lit .: Beritashvili I.S., Morphological. and physiological. bases of temporary connections in the cerebral cortex, "Proceedings of the Institute of Physiology named after IS Beritashvili", 1956, t. 10; McCulloch, W.C. and Pitts, W., Logic. calculus of ideas related to nervous activity, [trans. from English], in collection: Automata, M., 1956; Sokolov E. N., Nervous model of stimulus, "Dokl. APN RSFSR", 1959, No. 4; Katz B., The nature of the nerve impulse, in collection: Sovr. problems of biophysics, t. 2, M., 1961; Hartline X., Receptor mechanisms and the integration of sensory information in the retina, ibid .; Walter G.W., Stat. approach to the theory of conditional R., in the book: Electroencephalographic. research of higher nervous activity, M., 1962; Fessar?., Analysis of the closure of temporary connections at the level of neurons, ibid; Smirnov GD, Neurons and Functional. organization of the nervous center, in collection: Gagra conversations, vol. 4, Tb., 1963; Philos. question physiology of higher nervous activity and psychology, M., 1963 (see Art. P. K. Anokhin, E. A. Asratyan and N. A. Bernstein); Kogan A.B., Probabilistic-statistical. the principle of neural organization of functional systems of the brain, "DAN SSSR", 1964, v. 154, No. 5; Sherrington Ch. S., The integrative action of the nervous system, 1947; Hodgkin A. L., Huxley A. F., A quantitative description of membrane current and its application to conduction and excitation in nerve, "J. physiol.", 1952, v. 117, # 4; Hebb D. O., The organization of behavior, N. Y.–L.,; Robertis Ed. de, Submicroscopic morphology of the synapse, "Intern. Rev. Cytol.", 1959, v. 8, p. 61-96. A. Kogan. Rostov n / a.

Reflex I Reflex (Latin reflexus turned backward, reflected)

the reaction of the body, providing the emergence, change or termination of the functional activity of organs, tissues or the whole organism, carried out with the participation of the central nervous system in response to the receptors of the body.

The structural basis of reflex activity is. It consists of receptors (perceive irritation and are part of an afferent neuron), afferent, or sensory, nerve fibers (transmit impulses of receptors to the nervous system), a nerve center (synthesis of afferent excitation occurs in it), efferent, or motor, nerve fibers ( transmitted from the nervous center to the executive apparatus), effectors or executive organs (, vessels, glands, etc.). Areas of the body that include a set of receptors, the irritation of which is caused by a specific R., are called reflexogenic zones. These zones are found in all organs and tissues of the body. For example, irritation of the surface of the cornea of \u200b\u200bthe eye causes R. blinking, the mucous membrane of the nasopharynx - R. sneezing. Examples of such zones of internal organs are the aortic-carotid, including the aortic arch, and located at the branch of the common carotid artery into the external and internal. It consists of two formations - the carotid sinus and the carotid glomerulus, in which the chemoreceptors are located; of this zone are involved in the regulation of the level and activity of the respiratory center.

The reflex is an elementary unit of nervous action. Under natural conditions, R. are not carried out in isolation, but are combined (integrated) into complex reflex acts that have a definite biological orientation. The biological significance of reflex mechanisms lies in the regulation of the work of organs and the coordination of their functional interaction in order to ensure the constancy of the internal environment of the body (see.Neurohumoral regulation of functions, Homeostasis), preservation of its integrity and the ability to adapt to constantly changing environmental conditions (see.Higher nervous activity, Instinct, Functional systems).

Reflexes are grouped into different groups depending on the leading feature taken as the basis for their division. According to the classification of I.I. Pavlova, all reflexes are divided into congenital, or unconditioned (they are specific and relatively constant), and individually acquired, or conditional, R. (wear changeable and temporary and are developed in the process of interaction of the organism with the environment). The characteristic of R. is rather widespread in individual links of the reflex arc. According to the localization of receptors R. are divided into extero-, intero- and proprioceptive, according to the location of the central link - into spinal, bulbar, mesencephalic, cerebellar, diencephalic, cortical; by localization of the efferent part - into somatic and vegetative; according to the reaction caused - to swallowing, blinking, cough, etc. In neurological practice, the scheme of R.'s division into superficial and deep ones is most often used. To superficial reflexes are R. from the mucous membranes and skin, to deep - tendon, subcutaneous, articular. There are also so-called motor-visceral R., in which muscle contractions through the proprioceptive afferent system cause a change in one or another autonomic reaction, for example, the Dagnini-Ashnez oculomotor reflex, or ocular R. caused by pressure on the subject, normally leads to a slowdown in the pulse at 8-10 beats / min.

The degree of "maturity" of R. and the stability of their manifestation depend on the person's age. In the early postnatal period there is a rapid development of R. Further coordination of the forming R. and their sets is carried out due to the maturation of synaptic structures (see. Synapse) and mechanisms of central inhibition (Inhibition). As the organism ages, irreversible structural changes occur in the nerve cells, which are accompanied by a drop in excitability, a decrease in the rate of excitation; at the same time, inhibitory processes are weakened, the time for performing reflex acts increases.

The nature and intensity of the reflex reaction during irritation of the same reflex zone depend on the functional state of the organism and the intensity of irritation. In clinical practice, a significant number of R. with a similar structure of the reflex arc is investigated. For each of them, a special research technique has been developed (see Reflexes in neuropathology).

To analyze R. in health and pathology (reflexometry), a complex of techniques is used using specialized instruments - reflexometers. has found wide application in various fields, such as athletes, biomedical and psychological research, as well as in detailed clinical research and diagnosis of occupational diseases.

Bibliography: Bekhtereva N.P. Healthy and large human brain, L., 1980; General nervous system, ed. P.G. Kostyuk, L., 1979; Pavlov I.P. Twenty years of experience in the objective study of higher nervous activity (behavior) in animals. , M., 1973; Simonov N.V. human. Motivational and emotional aspects, M., 1975; Sherrington Ch.S. Integrative activity of the nervous system,. from English, L., 1969, bibliogr.

II Reflex (s) (reflexus; Latin "reflection", from reflecto, reflexurn to turn, turn back)

the body's reaction to irritation, carried out with the participation of the nervous system.

Reflex adductor (r. adductorius) - physiological periosteal P.: thighs when tapping along the iliac crest, pubic symphysis, the inner surface of the knee or along the tibia.

Dorsal adductor reflex (r. adductorius dorsalis;.: McCarthy spinoadductor reflex, adductor reflex, Chlenova - McCarthy reflex) - P .: adduction of one or both hips of the person sitting with the legs apart while tapping along the spinous processes of the vertebrae; observed with the defeat of the pyramidal pathways.

Alliated reflexes (French allier to connect, connect) - P., mutually reinforcing each other.

Reflex anal (r. analis) - physiological P .: external sphincter of the anus with tingling or line irritation of the skin around it; cause in the position of the subject on the side with the legs brought to the stomach.

Reflexes antagonistic (r. antagonistici) - P., one of which has an inhibitory effect on the other.

Reflex auropalpebral (r. auropalpebralis; lat.auris + palpebra eyelid; synonym of R. cochleopalpebral) - physiological P .: closing of the eyelids when suddenly exposed to a sound stimulus.

Reflex auropupillary (r. auropupillaris; lat. auris ear + pupilla) - physiological P .: rapid constriction of the pupils, followed by their slow expansion when suddenly exposed to a sound stimulus.

Achilles reflex (r. Achillis) - physiological P .: plantar foot when struck with a hammer on the heel (Achilles) tendon.

Aschner's reflex - see Reflex of the eye-heart.

Reflex Babkin - see Reflex palmar-mouth-head.

Reflex unconditional (synonym of R. congenital) - congenital P., constantly arising in individuals of this type and age with adequate irritation of certain receptors.

Abdominal reflex (r. abdominalis) - the general name of physiological P., manifested by the contraction of any muscles of the anterior abdominal wall.

Reflex abdominal superior (r. abdominalis superior) - superficial R. b., in which irritation is applied along the costal arch.

Deep abdominal reflex (r. abdominalis profundus) - R. b., caused by a hammer blow on the iliac crest, on the pubis or along the costal arch.

Abdominal skin reflex (r. abdominalis cutaneus) - see Abdominal superficial reflex.

Reflex abdominal lower (r. abdominalis inferior) - superficial R. b., in which irritation is applied by the inguinal ligament.

Abdominal superficial reflex (r. abdominalis superficialis; synonym of R. abdominal skin) - R. b., caused by rapid dashed irritation of the skin of the abdomen in the direction from the periphery to the midline.

Mid abdominal reflex (r. abdominalis medius) - superficial R. b., in which irritation is applied to the skin of the abdominal wall at the level of the navel.

Bulbar reflexes (r. bulbares) - P., the reflex arc of which is closed in the nuclei of the medulla oblongata (for example, pharyngeal, palatine, swallowing, sucking P.).

Bulbocavernosus reflex (r. bulbocavernosus) - physiological R.: contraction of the bulbous-spongy muscle with slight squeezing of the glans penis with the fingers.

Reflex vegetative (r. vegetativus) - the general name of P., regulating the activity of glands, blood vessels, internal organs, smooth muscles, and also exerting various adaptive and trophic influences.

Reflex vegetative-somatic (r. vegetosomaticus) - see Visceromotor reflex.

Vestibulospinal reflex (r. vestibulospinalis; syn.) - physiological P .: deviation of the trunk and limbs to the side when the receptors of the vestibular analyzer are irritated.

Reflex vestibulotonic (r. vestibulotonicus) - R .: change in muscle tone on the side of irritation of the labyrinth receptors.

Visceral reflex (r. visceralis; syn.) - the general name of P., caused by irritation of internal organs or manifested by a change in the function of any internal organs.

Viscerovasomotor reflex (r. viscerovasomotorius) - P .: change in the lumen of blood vessels during irritation of the receptors of internal organs.

Viscero-visceral reflex (r. viscerovisceralis) - visceral P .: change in the activity of an internal organ when the receptors of another internal organ are irritated.

Viscerodermal reflex (r. viscerodermalis) - see Viscerocutaneous reflex.

Viscerocutaneous reflex (r. viscerocutaneus; synonym of R. viscerodermal) - visceral R .: change in the sensitivity of certain areas of the skin (Zakharyin's zones - Ged) when irritating the receptors of the internal organ.

Visceromotor reflex (r. visceromotorius; syn.: R. vegetosomatic, R. viscerosomatic) - visceral P .: contraction of certain skeletal muscles when the receptors of the internal organ are irritated.

Viscero-secretary reflex (r. viscerosecretorius) - visceral P .: change in the activity of certain glands of external or internal secretion when the receptors of the internal organ are irritated.

Viscerosensory reflex (r. viscerosensorius) - visceral P .: the occurrence of various sensations during irritation of the receptors of internal organs.

Viscerosomatic reflex (r. viscerosomaticus) - see Visceromotor reflex.

Reflex tasteful (r. gustolacrimalis) - unilateral profuse with irritation of taste buds; occurs on the side of the lesion of the facial nerve (in the area of \u200b\u200bthe knee ganglion).

Cardiovascular reflex (r. cardiovascularis) - vegetative R.: change in the lumen of blood vessels when the receptors of a certain part of the heart are irritated.

Reflex cardio-cardiac (r. cardiocardialis) - vegetative P: change in the activity of the heart or its parts when the pressure in the cavities of the heart changes (for example, a drop in pressure in the left ventricle causes a reflex increase and increase in its contractions).

Reflex carpoule (r. carpoulnaris; Greek karpos wrist + anat. ulna ulna) - see Reflex.

Cough reflex (r. tussis) - physiological P .: arising from irritation of the respiratory tract receptors.

Clinostatic reflex (r. clinostaticus; Greek klinō tilt + statikos occupying a certain position) - somatovegetative R.: slowing down the pulse by 6 -8 beats per minute. when moving from vertical to horizontal.

Skin-visceral reflex (r. cutaneovisceralis) - visceral P., arising from irritation of skin receptors.

Musculoskeletal reflex (r. cutaneomuscularis) - a change in muscle tone or contraction with irritation of skin receptors.

Reflex skin-heart (r. cutaneocardiacus) - skin-visceral P., manifested by a change in any parameters of cardiac activity (rhythm, stroke volume, etc.).

Reflex skin-slimy (r. cutaneomucosus) - skin-visceral P., manifested by a change in the secretory and (or) suction activity of the mucous membranes.

Skin reflex (r. cutaneus) - the general name of P., caused by irritation of skin receptors.

Knee reflex (r. genualis; syn.:, R. patellar, R. with the quadriceps femoris muscle,) - physiological P .: extension of the lower leg when struck with a hammer on the tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscle under the patella.

Knee pendulum reflex (syn.: Rusetskogo rocking knee reflex,) - rhythmic, gradually decreasing in amplitude, vibrational movements of the lower leg when causing the knee P .; observed with cerebellar hypotension.

Conjunctival reflex (r. conjunctivalis) - physiological P .: closing of the eyelids with a light touch to the conjunctiva of the eyeball.

Reflex coordinated (r. coordinatus) - P., in the implementation of which various, sometimes remote muscles are involved (for example, cough P., vomit P.).

Corneal reflex (r. cornealis) - see Corneal reflex.

Reflex corneomandibular (r. corneomandibularis; anat. cornea + mandibula lower jaw; synonym: Zeldera corneomandibular) blink-chewing test, R. corneopterygoid) - pathological R .: concomitant contraction of the circular muscle of the eye and external pterygoid muscle, followed by movement of the lower in the opposite direction when touching the cornea or vigorously closing the eyes; a sign of bilateral damage to the cortical-nuclear pathways.

Corneopterygoid reflex (anat. cornea cornea + pterygoideus pterygoid) - see corneomandibular reflex.

1) physiological P .: turning the eyes towards the sound source; 2.) physiological R.: change in the heart rate and respiration with intense sound stimulation.

Cochleopalpebral reflex (r. cochleopalpebralis; anat. cochlea snail + palpebra eyelid) - see Reflex auropalpebral.

Cochleopupillary reflex (r. cochleopupillaris; anat. cochlea snail + pupula pupil) - see Cochleopupillary reflex.

Cochleostapedial reflex (Anatomical cochlea cochlea + musculus stapedius stapedius muscle) - physiological P .: contraction of the stapedius muscle with intense sound stimulation, manifested by a sensation of pain in the ear.

Reflex cremaster (anat. musculus cremaster muscle lifting the testicle; syn. cremaster reflex) - physiological P .: pulling up the testicle with streak irritation of the skin of the upper-inner surface.

Reflex cubital (r. cubitalis; anat. cubitalis ulnar) - see Ulnar reflex.

Reflex cubitopronator (r. cubitopronatorius; anat. cubitus + musciilus pronator pronator) - see Ulnar reflex.

Reflex of Kussmaul - Gentzler - see Reflex search.

Reflex labyrinth (r. labyrinthicus) - the general name of tonic P., caused by irritation of the receptors of the vestibular apparatus.

Reflex palmar-roto-head (r. palmoorocephalicus; syn.) - physiological R. in children under 3 months of age: opening the mouth sometimes with the head tilted forward when pressing on the palmar surface of the hand at the base of the thumb.

Scapular reflex (r. scapularis; syn. Steinhausbna scapuloperiosteal reflex) - physiological R. adduction of the scapula when tapping along its inner edge or with dashed irritation of the skin inward from the inner edge of the scapula.

Scapular-shoulder reflex (r. scapulobrachialis; syn. Bechterew scapular-humeral reflex) - physiological P .: adduction of the shoulder and its rotation outward when struck with a hammer on the inner edge of the scapula.

Reflex ray (r. radialis; syn.: R. head of the beam, R. carporadial, R. metacarpoporadial, R. radiopronatorial, R. styloradial) - physiological P .: and flexion of the forearm, sometimes fingers when struck with a hammer on the styloid process of the radial bones.

Mamilloareolar reflex (r. mamilloareolaris; lat. mamula nipple + areola mammae) - physiological P .: contraction of smooth muscle fibers of the parapapillary circle, manifested by its noticeable compaction when the surface of the nipple is irritated.

Mandibular reflex (r. mandibularis; syn. masseter-reflex) - physiological P .: contraction of the masticatory muscles when struck with a hammer directly on the chin or on a spatula placed on the lower ones with a half-open mouth.

Medioplantar reflex (r. medioplantaris; lat. medium middle + planta sole) - physiological P .: flexion of the foot when struck with a hammer in the middle of the sole.

Reflex blinking - protective P: contraction of the circular muscle of the eye, for example, when the eye is suddenly illuminated or an object appears in front of the eyes.

Myostatic reflex (nrk) - see stretch reflex.

Reflex monosynaptic (r. monosynapticus; Greek monos one + Synapse) - P., the reflex arc of which does not include intercalary neurons.

Reflex motor-vascular (r. motovascularis) - somatovegetative P .: change in the lumen of blood vessels with irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Motor-visceral reflex (r. motovisceralis) - the general name of somatovisceral R. in the form of changes in the activity of any internal organs during irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Motor-dermal reflex (r. motodermalis) - somatovegetative P .: changes in the functions of the skin, for example, perspiration with irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Motor-stomach reflex (r. motogastricus) - motor-visceral P .; change in the secretory and motor activity of the stomach with irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Reflex motor-cardiac (r. motocardiacus) - motor-visceral P .: change in the rhythm of heart contractions with irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Reflex motor-renal (r. motorenalis) - motor-visceral P .: change in renal function with irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Motor-respiratory reflex (r. motorespiratorius) - motor-visceral R.: change in the frequency and depth of breathing during irritation or contraction of skeletal muscles.

Overhead reflex (r. superciliaris; syn. McCarthy supraorbital reflex) - physiological P .: closing of the eyelids when tapping along the inner edge of the eyebrow arch.

Supraorbital reflex McCarthy - see Reflex superciliary.

Reflex supraesteal - see Periosteal reflex.

Reflex nasopalpebral (r. nasopalpebralis; lat. nasus nose + palpebra eyelid) - physiological P .: closing of the eyelids with light tapping on the back of the nose or pressing on it.

Palatine-cardiac reflex... (r. palatocardiacus) - vegetative R.: increased heart rate when pressing on the hard palate.

Palatine reflex (r. palatalis) - physiological P .: raising the soft palate and uvula with mechanical stimulation of the soft palate.

Reflex naso-chin (r. nasomentalis; syn.:, Flatau reflex) - R. oral automatism: contraction of the muscles of the chin when struck with a hammer on the back of the nose.

Reflex positioning - change in the development of any conditional R. when the environment changes.

Defensive reflex (r. protectivus) - see Protective reflex.

Oculocardiac reflex (r. oculocardiacus; Latin oculus of eyes + Greek kardia) - see reflex of the eye-heart.

Oculo-ocular reflex (r. oculoocularis; lat. oculus of the eyes) - vegetative P.: increased intraocular pressure in the intact eye with hypertension in the other eye caused by the action of any irritant (pain, thermal, chemical, etc.).

Opto-motor fusion reflex (Greek optikos referring to vision + Latin motor leading to; synonym: R. fusion, R. fusion) - motor R. in the form of friendly movements of the eyeballs arising from simultaneous stimulation of functionally different (disparate) points of the retina of the right and left eyes and leading to the projection of the image of the object-stimulus on the corresponding points of the retina; provides binocular vision capability.

Reflex of oral automatism - stretching of the lips or the appearance of sucking movements with irritation of some parts of the body, mainly the face; for children of the first year of life are physiological P., later manifestations of pseudo-bulbar paralysis.

Reference reflexes - P., arising from a sudden change in the environment and accompanied by the activation of analyzers and the mobilization of energy resources.

Orthostatic reflex (r. orthostaticus) - physiological vegetative P .: increased heart rate by 8-12 beats per 1 min... when a person's body position changes from horizontal to vertical, for example when getting out of bed.

Reflex paradoxical (r. paradoxalis) - P., which is expressed in a perverse (often opposite) effect compared to normal R. (for example, contraction of the flexors upon irritation of the extensor tendons and vice versa).

Pathological reflexes - the general name of P. found in an adult when pyramidal pathways are affected (in young children, such R. are a normal phenomenon).

Periostal reflex (r. periostalis; syn. R. periosteal) - physiological P .: contraction of certain muscles during mechanical irritation of the periosteum, for example, when struck with a hammer.

Peripheral reflex (r. periphericus) - vegetative P., carried out through the ganglia of the autonomic nervous system without the direct involvement of the central nervous system.

Reflex peroneofemoral (r. peroneofernofalis; anat. peroneus peroneal + lat. fetnur thigh) - see Reflex from the biceps femoris.

Pilot reflex (r. pilomotorius; lat.pilus hair + motor setting in motion; synonym of R. hair) - vegetative R.: contraction of muscles lifting, with mechanical or thermal irritation of skin receptors; manifested by the occurrence of goose bumps.

Reflex food (r. alimentarius) - the general name of vegetative R., manifested by a change in the functional state of the digestive system under the action of a food irritant.

Plantar reflex (r. plantaris; lat.planta sole) - see Plantar reflex.

Pleuropulmonary reflex (r. pleuropulmonalis; anat. pleura + pulmo, pulmonis lung) - visceral R.: spasm of bronchial muscles and blood vessels of the lungs during irritation of pleural receptors.

Chin reflex (r. mentalis; syn.:, R. mental-mental) - R. oral automatism: contraction of the chin muscles when struck with a hammer on the chin.

Greenhouse reflex (r. plantaris; syn. R.) - physiological P .: plantar flexion of the toes with dashed irritation of the skin of its plantar surface at the outer rake.

Posotonic reflex - see Postural reflex.

Search reflex (synonym) - physiological R. in children under 2 months of age: stretching the lips, deviation of the tongue and turning the head towards irritation of the skin in the area of \u200b\u200bthe nasolabial fold.

Reflex polysynaptic (Greek poly many + Synapse) - P., the reflex arc of which has one or more intercalary neurons.

Postural reflex (r. posturalis; syn.: R. posotonic, R.) - the general name of P., ensuring the maintenance of a certain position in space of the whole body or its part (for example, limbs).

Reflex pressor (r. pressorius; lat.presso press, press) - the general name of P., leading to an increase in blood pressure.

Acquired reflex - see Conditioned reflex.

Pronatory reflex (r. pronatorius; anat. musculus pronator pronator) - physiological P .: pronation of the hand and forearm when struck with a hammer on the circular pronator in the medial condyle of the humerus.

Reflex proprioceptive (r. proprioceptivus) - the general name of P., manifested by contraction of skeletal muscles during stimulation of proprioceptors.

Gallbladder reflex - visceral P .: contraction of the gallbladder when the mucous membrane of the duodenum is irritated by certain food irritants (for example, vegetable oils) or specially administered substances (for example, magnesium sulfate solution).

Pupillomotor reflex (r. pupillomotorius; anat. pupilla pupil + lat. motor driving) - see. Pupillary reflex.

The metacarpal-ray reflex (r. meta-carporadialis) - see Radiation reflex.

Reflex radio transmission (r. radiopronatorius; anat. radius radial bone + musculus pronator pronator) - see Radial reflex.

Extension-elbow reflex - see Triceps Shoulder Reflex.

Extension reflex cross (syn.) - extension of the bent leg with passive flexion of the other leg in the hip and knee joints; observed in spastic paraparesis of the lower extremities as a pathological protective P., and also normally in young children.

Stretch reflex (synonym of R. myostatic - NRK) - the general name of P., manifested by contraction of skeletal muscle in response to its passive or active stretching.

Vomiting reflex (r. vomificus) - physiological P .: the occurrence of vomiting or the urge to vomit during mechanical stimulation of the receptors of the posterior pharyngeal wall.

Rib reflex (r. costalis; syn.) - physiological P .: unilateral contraction of the muscles of the upper abdominal wall when struck with a hammer along the edge of the costal arch.

Segmental reflexes (r. segmentarii) - P., the reflex arc of which closes at the level of one or more adjacent segments of the spinal cord, for example, tendon P.

Reflex carotid sinus (r. sinocaroticus; anat. sinus caroticus) - the general name of P., arising from irritation of receptors located in the carotid sinus.

Steinhausen scapuloperiostal reflex (anat. scapula + periosteum periosteum) - see scapular reflex.

Zygomatic reflex (r. zygomaticus) - pathological P .: of the lower jaw towards hemiplegia when beating along the zygomatic arch from the same side.

Fusion reflex - see Optomotor fusion reflex.

Solar reflex (r. solaris; anat. obsolete plexus solaris solar plexus; synonym: R. epigastric,) - vegetative R.: slowing down the pulse and lowering blood pressure when pressing on the abdominal wall between the navel and the xiphoid process (celiac plexus region).

Somatic reflex (r. somaticus) - the general name of P., manifested by a change in the tone of skeletal muscles or their contraction in any way on the body.

Reflex somatovegetative (r. somatovegetativus) - P., arising from irritation of the receptors of the skin, mucous membranes and the musculoskeletal system and carried out with the participation of the autonomic nervous system.

Somatovisceral reflex (r. somatovisceralis) - P., manifested by a change in the function of internal organs when the receptors of the skin or the musculoskeletal system are irritated.

Sucking reflex - physiological R. in newborns: rhythmic movements of the lips, tongue, and muscles of the walls of the oral cavity during irritation of the receptors of the mucous membrane of the lips or of the surrounding skin; provides the act of sucking.

Vascular reflex (r. vascularis) - vegetative P., manifested by a change in the tone of blood vessels.

Spinal automatism reflex - see Protective reflex.

Spinal reflexes (r. spinales) - P., the reflex arc of which is closed in the spinal cord without the participation of the overlying sections of the c.ns.

Reflex spin-adductor McCarthy - see Dorsal adductor reflex.

Reflex static (r. staticus; Greek statikos occupying a certain position) - see Postural reflex.

Statokinetic reflexes (r. statokinetici; Greek statos referring to a certain position + kinēsis movement) - P., ensuring the maintenance of balance of the body during active and passive movement in space.

Stem reflexes - P., the reflex arc of which is closed in the nuclei of the brain stem.

Styloradial reflex (r. styloradialis; anat. processus styloideus radii of the radius) - see Reflex of the radius.

Reflex tendon (r. tendinis) - physiological P .: muscle contraction with mechanical stimulation, for example, with a hammer blow.

Telereceptual reflex (r. telereceptivus) - the general name of physiological P. arising from irritation of distant receptors (visual, auditory, olfactory).

Reflex tibioadductor (r. tibioadductorius; anat. tibia tibia + musculus adductor adductor muscle; synonym of R. tibiofemoral) - physiological R .: adduction of the thigh when tapping along the lower part of the tibia.

Reflex tibiofemoral (r. tibiofemoralis; anat. tibia tibia + femur thigh) - see tibioadductor reflex.

Tom's Reflex - see Knee pendulum reflex.

Reflex tonic (r. tonicus) - the general name of P., expressed by changes in muscle tone.

Reflex tonic palmar (r. tonicus palmaris) - flexion of the fingers of the supinated hand with an increase in the concavity of the palm with repeated stroking stimulation of the palm in the direction from the hypotenar to the base of the thumb; observed when the premotor region of the frontal lobe of the large brain is affected on the opposite side.

Reflex tonic cervical (r. tonicus cervicalis) - postural P .: change in the tone of the muscles of the neck, trunk and limbs when changing the position of the head.

Reflex tonic cervical asymmetric (r. tonicus cervicalis asymmetricus) - an increase in the tone of the extensors of the limbs on the side to which it is turned, with a simultaneous increase in the tone of the flexors of the limbs on the other side; physiological postural R. in children under the age of 3 months, at a later age - a symptom of infantile cerebral palsy.

Reflex tonic cervical symmetric (r. tonicus cervicalis symmetricus) - an increase in the tone of the flexors of the upper and extensors of the lower extremities when the head is tilted forward; physiological postural R. in children under the age of 3 months, at a later age - a symptom of infantile cerebral palsy.

Reflex with three-headed muscles of the shoulder (r. musculi tricipitis brachii; synonym of R. extensor-ulnar) - physiological P .: extension of the forearm when struck with a hammer on the tendon of the triceps muscle.

Reflex trigeminopupillary (r. trigeminopupillaris; anat. nervus trigeminus trigeminal nerve + pupilla pupil) - see Pupillary trigeminal reflex.

1.1 The role of physiology in the materialistic understanding of the essence of life. The significance of the works of I.M.Sechenov and I.P. Pavlov in the creation of the materialistic foundations of physiology.
2.2 Stages of development of development of physiology. An analytical and systematic approach to the study of body functions. Acute and chronic experiment method.
3.3Definition of physiology as a science. Physiology as a scientific basis for diagnosing health and predicting the functional state and working capacity of a person.
4.4 Definition of physiological function. Examples of physiological functions of cells, tissues, organs and body systems. Adaptation as the main function of the body.
5.5 Concept of regulation of physiological functions. Mechanisms and methods of regulation. The concept of self-regulation.
6.6 Basic principles of reflex activity of the nervous system (determinism, analysis, synthesis, unity of structure and function, self-regulation)
7.7 Definition of reflex. Reflex classification. The modern structure of the reflex arc. Feedback, its meaning.
8.8 Humoral connections in the body. Characterization and classification of physiologically and biologically active substances. The relationship between the nervous and humoral mechanisms of regulation.
9.9 The doctrine of P.K. Anokhin about functional systems and self-regulation of functions. Nodal mechanisms of functional systems, general diagram
10.10 Self-regulation of the constancy of the internal environment of the body. The concept of homeostasis and homeokinesis.
11.11 Age features of the formation and regulation of physiological functions. Systemogenesis.
12.1 Irritability and excitability as the basis of tissue response to irritation. The concept of an irritant, types of irritants, characteristics. The concept of the threshold of irritation.
13.2 The laws of irritation of excitable tissues: the value of the strength of the stimulus, the frequency of the stimulus, its duration, the steepness of its growth.
14.3 Modern ideas about the structure and function of membranes. Ionic channels of membranes. Ionic gradients of the cell, mechanisms of origin.
15.4 Membrane potential, theory of its origin.
16.5. Action potential, its phases. Dynamics of membrane permeability in different phases of the action potential.
17.6 Excitability, methods of its assessment. Changes in excitability under the action of direct current (electroton, cathodic depression, accommodation).
18.7 Correlation of the phases of changes in excitability during excitation with the phases of the action potential.
19.8 Structure and classification of synapses. Mechanism of signal transmission in synapses (electrical and chemical) Ionic mechanisms of postsynaptic potentials, their types.
20.10 Determination of mediators and synoptic receptors, their classification and role in conducting signals in excitatory and inhibitory synapses.
21 Definition of mediators and synaptic receptors, their classification and role in the transmission of signals in excitatory and inhibitory synapses.
22.11 Physical and physiological properties of muscles. Types of muscle contractions. Muscle strength and work. The law of power.
23.12 Single contraction and its phases. Thetanus, factors influencing its size. The concept of optimum and pessimum.
24.13 Motor units, their classification. Role in the formation of dynamic and static contractions of skeletal muscles in vivo.
25.14 Modern theory of muscle contraction and relaxation.
26.16 Features of the structure and functioning of smooth muscles
27.17 Laws of conduction of excitation along nerves. Mechanism of nerve impulse conduction through myelin-free and myelinated nerve fibers.
28.17 Receptors of the sense organs, concept, classification, basic properties and features. Excitation mechanism. Functional mobility concept.
29.1 Neuron as a structural and functional unit in the central nervous system. Classification of neurons by structural and functional characteristics. The mechanism of penetration of excitation in a neuron. The integrative function of the neuron.
Question 30.2 Definition of the nerve center (classical and modern). Properties of nerve centers due to their structural links (irradiation, convergence, aftereffect of excitation)
Question 32.4 Braking in CNS (I.M.Sechenov). Modern ideas about the main types of central inhibition of postsynaptic, presynaptic and their mechanisms.
Question 33.5 Determination of coordination in the CNS. The basic principles of the coordination activity of the central nervous system: prescription, general "final" path, dominant, temporal connection, feedback.
Question 35.7 The medulla oblongata and the pons, the participation of their centers in the processes of self-regulation of functions. The reticular formation of the brainstem and its descending influence on the reflex activity of the spinal cord.
Question 36.8 Physiology of the midbrain, its reflex activity and participation in the processes of self-regulation of functions.
37.9 The role of the midbrain and medulla oblongata in the regulation of muscle tone. Decerebral stiffness and the mechanism of its occurrence (gamma-regidity).
Question 38.10 Static and statokinetic reflexes. Self-regulatory mechanisms for maintaining body balance.
Question 39.11 Physiology of the cerebellum, its effect on motor (alpha-regidity) and autonomic functions of the body.
40.12 Ascending activating and inhibiting influences of the reticular formation of the brainstem on the cerebral cortex. The role of the Russian Federation in the formation of the integral activity of the organism.
Question 41.13 Hypothalamus, characteristics of the main nuclear groups. The role of the hypothalamus in the integration of autonomic, somatic and endocrine functions, in the formation of emotions, motivations, stress.
Question 42.14 The limbic system of the brain, its role in the formation of motivations, emotions, self-regulation of autonomic functions.
Question 43.15 Thalamus, functional characteristics and features of nuclear groups of the thalamus.
44.16. The role of the basal nuclei in the formation of muscle tone and complex motor acts.
45.17 Structural and functional organization of the cerebral cortex, projection and associative zones. Plasticity of the functions of the cortex.
46.18 Functional asymmetry of the bp cortex, dominance of the hemispheres and its role in the realization of higher mental functions (speech, thinking, etc.)
47.19 Structural and functional features of the autonomic nervous system. Mediators of vegetative NS, the main types of receptor substances.
48.20 Departments of vegetative ns, relative physiological antagonism and biological synergism of their influences on innervated organs.
49.21 Regulation of autonomic functions (kbp, libmic system, hypothalamus) of the body. Their role in the vegetative provision of purposeful behavior.
50.1 Determination of hormones, their formation and secretion. Action on cells and tissues. Classification of hormones according to different characteristics.
51.2 The hypothalamic-pituitary system, its functional connections. Trans and para pituitary regulation of the endocrine glands. The mechanism of self-regulation in the activity of the endocrine glands.
52.3 Hormones of the pituitary gland and their participation in the regulation of endocrine organs and body functions.
53.4 Physiology of the thyroid and parathyroid glands. Neurohumoral mechanisms of regulation of their functions.
55.6 Physiology of the adrenal glands. The role of hormones of the cortex and medulla in the regulation of body functions.
56.7 Sex glands. Male and female sex hormones and their physiological role in sex formation and regulation of reproduction processes.
57.1 Concept of the blood system (Lang), its properties, composition, function. Composition of blood. Basic physiological constants of blood and mechanisms of their maintenance.
58.2 Composition of blood plasma. Osmotic blood pressure fs, which ensures the constancy of the osmotic blood pressure.
59.3 Plasma proteins, their characteristics and functional significance. Oncotic pressure in blood plasma.
60.4 blood pH, physiological mechanisms that maintain the constancy of acid-base balance.
61.5 Erythrocytes, their functions. Counting methods. Types of hemoglobin, its compounds, their physiological significance. Hemolysis.
62.6 Regulation of erythro and leukopoiesis.
63.7 Concept of hemostasis. The process of blood coagulation and its phases. Factors accelerating and slowing down blood clotting.
64.8 Vascular-platelet hemostasis.
65.9 Coagulant, anticoagulant and fibrinolytic blood system, as the main components of the apparatus of the functional system for maintaining the fluid state of blood
66.10 The concept of blood groups. Avo and Rh factor systems. Determination of the blood group. Blood transfusion rules.
67.11 Lymph, its composition, functions. Non-vascular fluid media, their role in the body. Exchange of water between blood and tissues.
68.12 Leukocytes and their types. Counting methods. Leukocyte formula. Leukocyte functions.
69.13 Platelets, quantity and functions in the body.
70.1 The importance of blood circulation to the body.
71.2 Heart, the meaning of its chambers and valve apparatus. Cardiocycle and its structure.
73. PD of cardiomyocytes
74. Correlation of excitement, excitability and contraction of cardiomyocytes in different phases of the cardiocycle. Extrasystoles
75.6 Intracardiac and extracardiac factors involved in the regulation of the heart, their physiological mechanisms.
Extracardiac
Intracardiac
76. Reflex regulation of the heart. Reflexogenic zones of the heart and blood vessels. Intersystem cardiac reflexes.
77.8 Auscultation of the heart. Heart sounds, their origins, listening places.
78. Basic laws of hemodynamics. Linear and volumetric blood flow velocity in various parts of the circulatory system.
79.10 Functional classification of blood vessels.
80. Blood pressure in various parts of the circulatory system. Factors determining its value. Types of blood pressure. Mean arterial pressure concept.
81.12 Arterial and venous pulse, origin.
82.13 Physiological features of blood circulation in the myocardium, kidneys, lungs, brain.
83.14 The concept of basal vascular tone.
84. Reflex regulation of systemic arterial pressure. The importance of vascular reflexogenic zones. The vasomotor center, its characteristics.
85.16 Capillary blood flow and its features. Microcirculation.
89. Bloody and bloodless methods for determining blood pressure.
91. Comparison of ECG and FKG.
92.1 Breathing, its essence and main stages. External respiration mechanisms. Biomechanics of inhalation and exhalation. Pressure in the pleural cavity, its origin and role in the mechanism of ventilation.
93.2 Gas exchange in the lungs. The partial pressure of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) in the alveolar air and the tension of gases in the blood. Methods for analyzing blood and air gases.
94. Transport of oxygen by blood. Curve of dissociation of oxyhemoglobin. Influence of various factors on the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Oxygen capacity of blood. Oxyhemometry and oxyhemography.
98.7 Methods for determining lung volumes and capacities. Spirometry, spirography, pneumotachometry.
99 Respiratory center. Modern representation and its structure and localization. The autonomy of the respiratory center.
101 Self-regulation of the respiratory cycle, mechanisms of the change of respiratory phases. Role of peripheral and central mechanisms.
102 Humoral effects on respiration, the role of carbon dioxide and pH levels. The mechanism of the first breath of a newborn. The concept of respiratory analeptics.
103.12 Breathing under conditions of low and high barometric pressure and with a change in the gas environment.
104. FS providing constant blood gas composition. Analysis of its central and peripheral components
105.1. Digestion, its meaning. The functions of the digestive tract. Research in the field of digestion by I.P. Pavlova. Methods for studying the functions of the gastrointestinal tract in animals and humans.
106.2. Physiological bases of hunger and satiety.
107.3. Principles of regulation of the digestive system. The role of reflex, humoral and local regulatory mechanisms. Gastrointestinal hormones.
108.4. Digestion in the oral cavity. Self-regulation of the chewing act. The composition and physiological role of saliva. Regulation of salivation. The structure of the reflex arc of salivation.
109.5. Swallowing its phase is the self-regulation of this act. Functional features of the esophagus.
110.6. Digestion in the stomach. Composition and properties of gastric juice. Regulation of gastric secretion. The phases of the separation of gastric juice.
111.7. Digestion in the 12-persistent intestine. Exocrine pancreatic activity. Composition and properties of pancreatic juice. Regulation of pancreatic secretion.
112.8. The role of the liver in digestion: barrier and bile-forming functions. Regulation of the formation and secretion of bile into the 12-persistent intestine.
113.9. Motor activity of the small intestine and its regulation.
114.9. Cavity and parietal digestion in the small intestine.
115.10. Features of digestion in the large intestine, colon motility.
116 Fs, ensuring the consistency of the pit. The thing is in the blood. Analysis of central and peripheral components.
117) The concept of metabolism in the body. Assimilation and dissimilation processes. The plastic energy role of nutrients.
118) Methods for determining energy consumption. Direct and indirect calorimetry. Determination of the respiratory coefficient, its value for determining energy expenditure.
119) Basic metabolism, its importance for the clinic. Conditions for measuring basal metabolic rate. Factors affecting the basal metabolic rate.
120) Energy balance of the body. Working exchange. Energy costs of the body for different types of labor.
121) Physiological nutritional standards depending on age, type of work and state of the body. Principles of drawing up food rations.
122. The constancy of the temperature of the internal environment of the body as a condition for the normal course of metabolic processes….
123) Human body temperature and its daily fluctuations. The temperature of various areas of the skin and internal organs. Nervous and humoral mechanisms of thermoregulation.
125) Heat transfer. Methods for transferring heat from the body surface. Physiological mechanisms of heat transfer and their regulation
126) The excretory system, its main organs and their participation in maintaining the most important constants of the internal environment of the body.
127) Nephron as a structural and functional unit of the kidney, structure, blood supply. The mechanism of formation of primary urine, its quantity and composition.
128) Formation of final urine, its composition. Reabsorption in the tubules, the mechanisms of its regulation. The processes of secretion and excretion in the renal tubules.
129) Regulation of kidney activity. The role of nervous and humoral factors.
130. Methods for assessing the amount of filtration, reabsorption and secretion of the kidneys. The concept of the coefficient of purification.
131.1 Pavlov's doctrine about analyzers. The concept of sensory systems.
132.3 Wiring department of analyzers. The role and participation of switching nuclei and reticular formation in the conduction and processing of afferent excitations
133.4 Cortical section of analyzers. Processes of higher cortical analysis of afferent excitations. Interaction of analyzers.
134.5 Adaptation of the analyzer, its peripheral and central mechanisms.
135.6 Characteristics of the visual analyzer. Receptor apparatus. Photochemical processes in the retina when exposed to light. Perception of light.
136.7 Modern concepts of light perception. Methods for studying the function of the visual anatizer. The main forms of color vision impairment.
137.8 Auditory analyzer. Sound-collecting and sound-conducting apparatus. The receptor section of the auditory analyzer. The mechanism of the appearance of the receptor potential in the hair cells of the spinal organ.
138.9 Theory of sound perception. Methods of learning the auditory analyzer.
140.11 Physiology of the taste analyzer. Receptor, conduction and cortical regions. Classification of taste sensations. Methods for the study of the taste analyzer.
141.12 Pain and its biological significance. Concept of nociception and central mechanisms of pain. Actinociceptive system. Neurochemical mechanisms of actinociception.
142. The concept of the anti-pain (antinociceptive) system. Neurochemical mechanisms of antinociception, the role of endorphins and exorphins.
143. Conditioned reflex as a form of adaptation of animals and humans to changing living conditions….
Rules for the development of conditioned reflexes
Classification of conditioned reflexes
144.2 Physiological mechanisms of the formation of conditioned reflexes. Classical and modern ideas about the formation of temporary connections.
Reflex- the main form of nervous activity. The body's response to irritation from the external or internal environment, which is carried out with the participation of the central nervous system, is called reflex.
According to a number of signs, reflexes can be divided into groups.
Unconditioned reflexes- hereditarily transmitted (congenital) reactions of the body inherent in the entire species. They perform a protective function, as well as the function of maintaining homeostasis (adaptation to environmental conditions).
Unconditioned reflexes are an inherited, invariable reaction of the body to external and internal signals, regardless of the conditions for the occurrence and course of reactions. Unconditioned reflexes ensure the adaptation of the body to constant environmental conditions. The main types of unconditioned reflexes: food, protective, orienting, sexual.
An example of a protective reflex is the reflexive withdrawal of the hand from a hot object. Homeostasis is maintained, for example, by a reflex increase in respiration rate with an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. Almost every part of the body and every organ is involved in reflex reactions.
The simplest neural networks, or arcs (according to Sherrington's expression), involved in unconditioned reflexes, are closed in the segmental apparatus of the spinal cord, but they can also close higher (for example, in the subcortical ganglia or in the cortex). Other parts of the nervous system are also involved in reflexes: brain stem, cerebellum, cerebral cortex.
Arcs of unconditioned reflexes are formed at the time of birth and persist throughout life. However, they can change under the influence of the disease. Many unconditioned reflexes appear only at a certain age; thus, the grasping reflex characteristic of newborns fades away at the age of 3-4 months.
Conditioned reflexesarise in the course of individual development and the accumulation of new skills. The development of new temporary connections between neurons depends on environmental conditions. Conditioned reflexes are formed on the basis of unconditioned ones with the participation of the higher parts of the brain.
The development of the doctrine of conditioned reflexes is associated primarily with the name of I.P. Pavlov. He showed that a new stimulus can start a reflex response if it is presented for some time together with an unconditioned stimulus. For example, if a dog is allowed to sniff meat, then it secretes gastric juice (this is an unconditioned reflex). If at the same time the bell rings with meat, the dog's nervous system associates this sound with food, and gastric juice will be secreted in response to the bell, even if meat is not presented. Conditioned Reflexes Underlie Learned Behavior
Reflex arc(nerve arc) - the path traversed by nerve impulses during the implementation of the reflex
The reflex arc consists of six components: receptors, afferent pathway, reflex center, efferent pathway, effector (working organ), feedback.
Reflex arcs can be of two types:
1) simple - monosynaptic reflex arcs (reflex arc of the tendon reflex), consisting of 2 neurons (receptor (afferent) and effector), between them there is 1 synapse;
2) complex - polysynaptic reflex arcs. They include 3 neurons (there may be more) - receptor, one or more intercalated and effector.
The feedback loop establishes a connection between the realized result of a reflex reaction and the nerve center, which issues executive commands. With the help of this component, an open reflex arc is transformed into a closed one.
Figure: 5. Reflex arc of the knee reflex:
1 - receptor apparatus; 2 - sensitive nerve fiber; 3 - intervertebral node; 4 - sensitive neuron of the spinal cord; 5 - motor neuron of the spinal cord; 6 - motor fiber of the nerve

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