Digestive and respiratory system of birds. Chicken anatomy from A to Z. Middle intestine, or thin intestinal department

The most important functions of the receipt of substances, their transformation and the elimination of undigested residues from the body performs the digestive system. Birds, being animals adapted to flight, have certain features of the internal structure. First of all, they are aimed at reducing their body weight. The digestive system is not an exception.

Animal digestive system

All the chords, which include birds and have a similar structure begins, it begins further through the sip of food enters the esophagus - the tube leading in the stomach. This part of the digestive system is an extension in which food is quite a long time. The final absorption of nutrients occurs in and the elimination of undigested food residues is carried out by the final department of the path. It is called a fat intestine that opens the outward with a clock or anal hole.

Features of the digestive system of birds are in the presence of goiter - expanding the esophagus and reduce the length of the intestine. These features of the structure contribute to a more intense and reduction in body weight of birds.

Is it possible to say about other organ systems?

(table).

What the birds eat

The structure to which the digestive system of the bird, its features and differences are primarily due to the character of food. City inhabitants feed on insects, seeds and residues of human food.

The taste preferences of birds are quite varied. Seagulls drink salted water, filtering it through the glands.

Poison is also such thanks to food features. It consumes beetles. Their poison penetrates the skin and bird feathers. Although the mukholovka itself has sustainable immunity to its action. A person can get a burn by touching her. But very small animals die from the harmful effect of the toxins of the mukholovka.

Pernava, who live in natural conditions, use delicious fruits, small vertebrates and even Padal. For this they have all the devices.

Beak

Birds do not have teeth. But they easily cope with hard nuts, and with small seeds. After all, initially the function of the teeth is performed by the beak. With it, the birds are crushed, crushed or tear food. The beak consists of a solid rod-like substance capable of withstanding sufficiently high weight and long-term loads. For example, a forest woodpecker can do a hole in the crust of the trees to 10 cm deep to enjoy insect larvae.

The shape and sizes of beak depend on what birds are powered.

For example, predators have a large curved beak, with which it can easily grasp and break the victim. Sapsan attacks even on large foxes and wolves. Forest birds, extracting insects from the bark of trees, as if chisel, make holes in it.

Help helps and language located in the oral cavity. It has special ornamental nipples that help keep food in the oral cavity.

The poultry digestive system continues through the throat, with the help of which already partially processed food is moving through the path.

Esophagus and goiter

The bird's esophagus has an unusual structure. This is not just a tube leading to the stomach. It forms an extension called goiter. It is here that food is delayed at a certain time and is subjected to chemical processing with saliva. And seagulls and pelicans are transferred to the goiter feed chicks from the scene of the feed in the nest.

What is bird milk

The name of this delicious dessert is familiar with everyone since childhood. It received its name due to the external similarity with the substance that is able to allocate only the feathery.

Some birds in specialized glands of the goiter produces a nutritious foam mass. This valuable product is used to feed chicks.

Bird's milk has nothing to do with the milk beasts. It is not entirely liquid, but it looks like a whipped curd mass. But also contains many valuable organic substances and vitamins capable of providing a newborn organism with everything necessary.

Penguins the bird's milk is formed in the stomach, and not in the esophagus, it is the most rich in fats. This substance is necessary for the development of chicks in difficult northern conditions. And adult penguins use a fat interlayer not only for warming the body, but also as a stock of food and energy. Having silent chicks for several months, males do not leave the place of laying. In such a state, they simply cannot produce food and support viability due to subcutaneous stocks.

Features of the structure of the stomach of birds

Bird's stomach also has characteristic features. It consists of two parts.

Stomach departments are called iron and muscular. In the first food is treated with gastric juice, i.e. It continues its chemical processing. The surface of the muscular department is covered with a tape from a damage. With it, food is peathed to a porridge state.

Surely many have seen the birds whose little pebbles. They do it at all because they do not know about their taste. Finding into a muscular bowel department, stones contribute to mechanical grinding of coarse food. Thus, the lack of teeth in birds is compensated.

Intestines

From the stomach, recycled food enters the small intestine, which opens the liver and pancreatic ducts. In this part of the digestive system, food is finally digested and absorbed into the blood.

The outward intestine opens with a clock. It is a hole, through which undigested food remains, the products of the functioning of sexual and excretory systems are displayed.

A feature of the bowel structure is its small length. It depends on the nature of food. For example, in birds preferring vegetable food, the intestines is longer than the body 8 times. And in the insectable representatives of the feathers - just 4.

By the way, the bird is considered the bird - the record holder of the smallest sizes. Guess? Well, of course, it is hummingbird. During the day she is able to use flower pollen, the weight of which is 2 times higher than its own mass.

And the wretchedness for one day brings chicks to 500 caterpillars and insects. This appetite!

And vultures are the winners among the most greedy and insatiable creatures. With a large number of food, they are found in such a way that they are simply impossible to take off. This problem of vultures are solved naturally: waiting for the body weight will decrease.

Birds digest food intensely, quickly empty intestines. This helps to reduce their body weight and providing the body with the necessary amount of energy. An ordinary sparrow is able to digest the caterpillar in 15 minutes, and the grain - for 3 hours. That is why the big part of his bird's life is carried out in search of food.

Digestive glands

Slying, pancreas and liver - here is a list that there are birds. They allocate biologically active substances - enzymes. They accelerate the digestion process, splitting complex carbohydrates to monosaccharides, proteins to amino acids, lipids to glycerol and fatty acids. It is in this form that organic substances can be absorbed by the body.

Features of the process of digestion birds

The internal structure of the birds (the table is presented in the article) indicates that all the features of their anatomical organization are aimed at adaptation to flight. This also applies to the digestive system system.

Instead of the cheeks and lips, birds have a beak, with the help of which the seizure and retention of food occurs. The mouth cavity has a solid sky. It covers the mucous membrane, on which special poveples of the cone-shaped form are located. With their help, food is moving into the esophagus. So that food does not fall into the nasal cavity, the sky bug makes the hot muscles already.

The stomach departments performing different functions contribute to intensive food processing. The intestine consists of two departments - thin and thick.

The digestive system of birds provides all the processes of the vital activity of the feathers. And the features of its structure determine the ability of these amazing animals to flight.

The material is taken from the site www.hystology.ru

The structure of the digestive system of birds is largely reminiscent of mammalian digestive apparatus. It also consists of a digestive tube and styled glands - salivary, pancreas and liver.

The nature of the processing of solid feed entering the body of birds and requires grinding in the absence of teeth, determines the features of the functional morphology of the digestive system, which are illuminated by the "Anatomy of Agricultural Animals". Significant differences have a mouth and stomach. Other organs are a thin and thick intestine, the liver, pancreas are similar in structure with mammalian organs.

Oral cavitybirds are covered with flat multi-layer epithelium. The thickness of the epithelial layer and the process of its energization in different parts of the oral cavity is characterized by their peculiarities. The process of the orog intensively flows on the border with skin and ends with the formation of the horn. Multilayered squamous epithelium is located on the main plate constructed from loose connective tissue.

Outlies of the following glands are opened in the oral cavity: maxillary, parallel, submandibular (front and rear), paternal, ring-shaped-and-shaped, iron corner glands. The structure of these glands is based on a ferrous slicing, consisting of mucous cells, radially arranged around collective or central space (cavity). The latter passes into the output duct, the wall of which is built from the coating epithelium.

Serous secretory end departments in the composition of the salivary glands were not detected. The structure of the birds of the birds is not sufficiently studied.

Esophagus. Its wall consists of mucosa, muscle and adventitious shells. Four layers are well expressed in the mucous membrane: epithelial, basic and muscle plates, a submucous base. The epithelial layer is represented by flat multi-layer orinal epithelium. In the process of dear, superficially lying cells turn into horny flakes.

The own plate consists of a loose connective tissue, which is poorly elastic fibers and lymphoid cloth .. Her nipples are going to the epithelial layer and have a significant height. In the recorder itself there are mucous glands. All end departments of the gland are opened in a collective cavity, which is the beginning of the unbranched output flow. In ferrous cells of the terminal, the kernel are pressed by the mucous secret to the baseal membrane. In the zone of the transition of the main plate of the esophagus in the stomach, numerous lymphoid nodules lie - Ezophagial almonds.

Muscular plate mucous membrane is strongly developed. It is built of longitudinally oriented smooth muscle cells. This layer is involved in the formation of the folds of the mucous membrane.

The submissible base consists of a loose connective tissue, thereby creating the mobility of the mucous membrane when it is formeding its non-permanent folds.

The extension shell is represented by two layers of smooth muscle cells: internal - circular and outdoor - longitudinal. The circular layer is more developed.

Adventization, as in mammals, is built of loose connective tissue. After the entry of the esophagus in the chest cavity, the Adventization is replaced by a serous shell.

The derivative of the wall of the esophagus is the goiter, so its wall also has three shells built from the same layers, and the layers are from the same tissues. The ventral wall of the goiter is represented by a thicker epithelial layer in which the boundary is very clearly ". The mucous glands are located only in the dorsal wall of the goiter. Muscle plate and muscle shell are especially developed in the ventral part of the goiter.

The stomach consists of two departments - ferruginous and muscle (Fig. 281). The first allocates digestive juice, the second is designed for food inheritance. In the glande the stomach, food comes enriched with enzymes and, without lingering, falls into

Fig. 281.

The mucous membrane of ferrous (BUT)and muscular (B)stomach chicken:
but - glandular bags; b - superficial and in - deep glands; g. - muscular plate; d. - muscular shell; in the glands; j. - horny stuff; s -connective tissue.

muscle stomach, where chemical and mechanical processing occurs.

Iron stomach. Its wall is formed from mucosa, muscle and serous shells. The epithelial layer of the mucous membrane is a single-layer cylindrical iron epithelium, so the covering epithelium of the stomach is an extensive glandular field producing mucus.

The main plate is represented by a loose connective tissue rich in cellular elements. It contains one-barrels (at ducks) and multi-rolled (in chickens and geese) gland. Slops are excluded with an interdoltically connective tissue. Inside each slices there is a collective, or central, cavity covered with a single-layer iron epithelium, moving to the surface epithelial layer of ferrous stomach. The epithelium slice of the gland is immersed in depth, forming structures similar to gastric pits in mammals. These pits open tubular glands located in the slicing.

It is tightly adjacent to each other, they lie radially around a collective cavity. Tubular glands are constructed from one type of ferrous cells. Electron microscopic studies suggest that these cells produce hydrochloric acid, and pepsinogen, so the cells contain a developed grainy endoplasmic network, a set of major mitochondria with a large number of tightly lying crists, smooth endoplasmic network, bubbles and microtubule. In the zone of the Golgie complex there are winter grains. According to some authors, the synthesis of hydrochloric acid is carried out in the apical part of the glandular cell, and pepsinogen in the basal.

The output duct glands opens on the surface of the elevation of the mucous membrane. These elevations are visible to the naked eye and are called ferrous bags. There are no other glazes in the mucous membrane. The powerful layer of the muscle plate of the mucous membrane of the ferrous stomach is a continuation of the muscular plate of the mucous membrane of the esophagus. Smooth muscle cells are deployed from the bottom, sides and from above.

The subliminate base consists of loose connective tissue and is minor. The muscular shell is represented by two layers of smooth muscle cells, of which the inner is circular, external - longitudinal.

The serous shell is built, as usual, from loose connective tissue and mesothelium.

Muscular stomach. The wall of the muscular stomach has three shells: mucous, muscle and serous.

The epithelial layer of the mucous membrane is represented by a single-layer cubic epithelium. His piercing is the basis of the mucous membranes are gastric sneakers. They offer output ducts of simple tubular glands located in the main plate. Iron consists of bottom, body and cervical. The glands are built from the main cells. They are cubic shape with an intensely developed white-protected system, that is, a granular endoplasmic network. Plasmolm on the apical cell surface forms many microvones. The predecessors of the main cells are basal cells. Moving towards the neck of the gland, they become the cells of gastric pits and the coating epithelium. The glands produce the secret, which on the surface of the stomach solidifies, forming a very solid thermal layer - keratinoid cover, or cuticle. It consists of vertically oriented columns formed from the act of tubular glands and located between them matrix. The latter is formed from the secrets of gastric scene cells and surface epithelium. The mechanical softening of the feed contributes to the lumen of the muscular stomach sand, gravel, pebbles and other solid objects. There are no enzyme glands in the secrecy.

The digestion of the feed flows under the action of a ferruginous stomach, bacteria, food enzymes.

The muscular layer of the mucous membrane is absent.

The submucosal layer is built of dense fibrous connective tissue.

Muscular shell is represented by powerful beams of smooth muscle cells. Its strong reductions contribute to mechanical grinding of feed. An annular layer on the dorsal and, ventral edges of the stomach forms triangular main muscles. Between them lie intermediate muscles.

The serous shell has a connective layer and mesothelium.

Intestines. In structure, the intestinal wall is similar to the structure of mammals. The epithelial layer of the mucous membrane is a single-layer cylindrical gear epithelium. It consists of cautious, glazing and enterochromaphony cells. The main plate, built of loose connective tissue, forms a protrusion covered with a steam epithelium. This is a villi. At the base of the Village, crypts are opening - tubing pressure also covered with epithelium. They, like the VILLIN, increase the suction surface, are ironic and stem cells, therefore, the crypts are considered a zone of mitotically dividing enterocytes that replenish the epithelial layer of villi. The connecting tissue is rich in lymphoid elements, which are diffuse and in the form of lymphoid nodules.

Muscular shell is built of two layers of smooth muscle cells. The most developed is the internal circular layer.

The serous shell consists of loose connective tissue and mesothelium.

Cloaca is the expansion of the rear of the digestive channel. In Cloacu, sex and urinary tract are also opened, so it distinguishes three departments: a frozen, freak and proctodeum. The first one is the most extensive part. In structure, it has similarities with the rear intestine.

Pancreas- The base body lying in the duodenal loops. The number of glands of agricultural birds varies from agricultural birds. Slops are delimited by an interdollast connective tissue. They are built in the same way as in mammals, from exocrine and endocrine departments. The number of main output ducts lined up as interdollakovaya, single-layer columnar epithelium, different birds are different. In the indeek there are two of them, the chickens are three. The main output ducts are disintegrated into interdolt, and the latter - to insert. Inserting output ducts are covered with flat single-layer epithelium and switch to secretory departments.

The endocrine part of the gland is a complex of pancreatic islets. In birds, they consist only of one type of cells or cells A (dark), or from cells in (light), in connection with which light and dark islands differ. The ratio of these types of islands in chickens may vary under the influence of sex and age. Early chickens prevail bright islets.

Liver.The functional morphology of the liver of birds and mammals is similar: the valley structure is due to the blood supply to the organ; central location in the dolk of the central vein; On the periphery of the poles there are triads consisting of an interdolkovoy bile output duct, an interdollastic vein and an interdolk artery. Hepatocytes form radially lying beams. There are venous sinusoids between them.

The digestive system of birds is somewhat more complicated than reptiles. Feature of nutrition birds is that they are much and often eaten. Birds need to maintain a constant body temperature (they are warm-blooded) and the ability to fly, which requires a lot of energy. Therefore, they have intense metabolism, they need to quickly fill energy consumption. The digestive system of birds is arranged in such a way as to ensure rapid digestion. The digestion rate of food depends on its type and view to which one bird belongs. Typically, food is digested (from dusting food to exit residues) varies from 10 minutes (in herbivores) to several hours (in birds of prey).

There are no teeth in birds. In part, they replace sharp edges of the beak. Basically, the beak is used to capture and retention. Its shape and size depends on the food specialization of birds. The form and size of the tongue of birds also depend on the type of power.

Slying glands open in the mouth. In the saliva birds there are enzymes, digesting carbohydrates.

Many birds (especially graining) in the esophagus there is a goiter, which is its expansion. Here food is temporarily stored, swelling under the action of saliva, which it was processed in the oral cavity.

An important feature of the digestive system of birds is the presence of a double stomach. The first one is the iron stomach. In it, food is processed by gastric juice containing digestive enzymes. The second is a muscular stomach. Here food is peathed. The walls of the muscular stomach consist of powerful muscles and have folds, and in the stomach itself there are small pebbles that the bird swallows. It can be said that pebbles in birds perform the role of teeth.

The fact that in the muscular stomach is not digested (bones, wool, chitin), it is crushed into lumps that birds are torn through the mouth. Such lumps are called merchants. Archaeologists (scientists studying birds) can understand what birds eat.

From the muscular stomach, when opening it, food is opened in the front of the small intestine (duodenum), where the liver, gallbladder and pancreas are opened. Under the action of their food enzymes is finally digested and then all over the subtle intestine is absorbed into the blood.

A feature of the digestive system of birds is the presence of two blind processes on the border of the thin and thick bowel. The strongest of all they are developed in herbivorous birds.

The birds have a very short colon. So the remnants here are not delayed. It is important to facilitate the weight of the bird for flight.

The colon goes into a clock where excrement are quickly displayed. The birds have no rectum.

The digestive system in birds has significant structural and physiological features. The digestive system of the poultry is compact and at the same time extremely effective. Some small birds proceed daily by the amount of feed equivalent to approximately 30% of their body mass. Birds usually prefer concentrated feed of high energy value, insects and other animals, fruits and seeds. They rarely feed on the leaves of plants, grass. For poultry, the leaves of plants, grass are only an addition to a concentrate diet as a source of vitamins, minerals and a certain amount of water.

Structural features. The birds do not have lips, teeth, cheeks. Kray-shaped jaws perform food capture function. On the solid nose there are special cone-shaped nipples, directed back and contributing to the promotion of feed in the esophagus. Such panes are on the tip and back of the tongue, in addition, the root of the tongue there are filamentous papillas. The movements of the language and nipples as a whole provide the promotion of the captured portion of the feed in the throat, admission to the esophagus.

At the bottom and roof of the cavity of the beak are small salivary glands. Mixed saliva is a thick and viscous turbid liquid of a slightly alkaline reaction. It has a lot of mucus, mucin and amylase enzyme. During the day allocated from 3 to 20 ml of saliva.

Taste sticks in the thickening of the tongue ensure the formation of a taste.

Esophagus. Consists of two departments - upper and lower. The top department begins from the pharynx and ends with goiter, the bottom department - from the goiter and ends at the ferruginous stomach. The top of the esophagus is longer than the lower.

Goiter. It is an expansion of the esophagus, a strip muscular organ before entering the chest cavity. There are sphincter on the entrance and exit place. Goz is well developed at chickens, turkeys, ceskens, pigeons, geese and ducks are less developed and represents the true expansion of the esophagus.

The esophagus and goiter have a well-developed muscular wall. The inner surface of the goiter is lined with a multilayer flat epithelium. In the loose connective tissue of its walls there are alveolar-tubular glands, secreting mucosity, not containing enzymes.

The bottom of the esophagus goes into the stomach.

Stomach. It consists of two departments - glandular stomach and muscle stomach.

Its mucous membrane consists of single-layer iron epithelial cells that produce a special secret that hardens on its surface, forming a protective layer - cuticle. Cuticle is erased and is constantly replaced by a new secret. The secret contains hydrochloric acid.

Food is frozen, stirred, subjected to chemical transformation due to gastric juice and thrown out periodically from the intestine of the pancreas, bile and intestinal juice. The contents of the muscular stomach enters the 12-point intestine of a well-developed thin intestinal department. The sphincter between them closes loosely.

The most developed muscular stomach in geese, which consume a lot of herbs on grazing.

Thin intestinal department. It has a spiral form, characteristic of organs with large functionality. The delicious intestine is located between the air bags. The small intestine, like such mammals, consists of a 12-robbing, skinny and iliac gut. The 12-roster has a loop look. There is no sharp border between the skinny and ileum.

In birds in comparison with the mammals, the short intestine. The total length of the fine department in adult chickens 140 ... 150 cm, the total length of the entire intestine is more than 170 cm, the digestive tract is 210 cm, i.e., 6 times the length of the body is 6 times, and the chickens are ratio of 1: 4. The total length of the small intestine in the ducks of 159 cm, geese --234, the turkeys - 205 cm. The length of the 12-ripped, skinny and iliac intestine, respectively, in chickens 30, 102 and 18 cm, ducks --38, 116 and 14 cm, geese - 46, 165 and 23 cm, Indeke - 37, 140 and 28 cm.

The intestines of the intestines are thin, gentle, leaf and finger-shaped; They are more in a 12-risen intestine; For 1 cm 2 in chickens they account for 415, ducks - 1512, geese --2051, Indeke --292. The height of the Village reaches 1mm, diameter - 100 ... 200 μm. The surface area of \u200b\u200bthe mucous membrane of the small intestine at chickens is about 2.0 m 2, the ducks - 1.5, geese - 5.5, the turkeys - 8.6 m 2.

Pancreas and bile ductures fall into the 12-robbing.

Pancreas. Well developed, has a large size and mass: chickens 2.8 ± 0.12g, ducks-7.9 ± 0.30, geese - 9.1 ± 0.38, it has two shares; Chickens and ducks - three ducts, in geese and turkeys - two, which are opening into one papilloma with a bull duct into a 12-point intestine. The pancreas highlights the pancreas juice containing the same enzymes as in mammals, but more active.

Liver. Well developed; Weight up to 40 g, but can reach up to 1 kg in geese with a special fattening. The liver highlights bile dark or light green; Contains alpha-amylase. Bile from the right and left fraction first enters the sinus - expansion of the ducts, then by sine-bubble in the gallbladder. The gallbladder and sinus are connected to a 12-rosewood intestine with bubbling and sinus-intestinal ducts.

Thick bowel area. It is represented by blind proceedings and the rectum opening in Cloaca. The ileum goes into the rectum; Two blind processes depart on the place of the transition. They are located at an angle of 30 ° to the intestines and have sphincters. The length of the process is 17 ... 30 cm at chickens, 20 ... 25 cm in geese. Sphinters in the initial and ultimate part of the rectum prevent the content of the content from the rectum to the iliac and premature receipt of it in the clock. The rectum is short, weakly developed - in chickens with a length of 8 ... 11 cm, a diameter of 1 ... 1.5 cm. The rectum goes into a clock.

Cloaca. It is an expansion of the final part of the rectum. Two transverse ring muscles of the Cloaca is divided into three departments: 1) the front, coprodium, or a caliber sine, is a true continuation of the rectum; 2) medium, wobbly, or urinary sinus - ureterals, sperm or eggs are opened in it; 3) rear, proctodium, - through it there is a feces and urine.

The splees and hussak, as well as the swan in Cloaca is the organ of copulation.

The posterior hole in birds has the shape of a slit, surrounded by a ring of locking muscles.

Physiological features. Receiving feed. Birds capture food with a beak. Food eaten by birds of different species is different by properties. Accordingly, the digestive apparatus in different types of birds has its own structural-physiological features.

The captured portion of the feed is not chewed, but moisturizes the saliva and the movement of the language moves into the throat and further into the esophagus and goiter. I.

Digestion in Zob. Characterized by a complex motor-secretory function. Here are two types of abbreviations - peristaltic and tonic. They are difficult to combine and ensure the arrival of feed in the left half of the goiter, then into the right.

For goiter, a certain pattern of motor activity is characterized: 5 ... 12 consecutive contractions alternate with a pause of 10 minutes. Immediately after filling the goiter, the feed is slowed down or completely stopped by 35 ... 40 min. Goob's movements are provided by abbreviations of circular and longitudinal smooth muscles; They regulate wandering and sympathetic nerves.

Small components of the contents of the goiter in the first minutes go to the lower diver of esophageal, larger delayed up to 14 hours.

The flow of feed in the goiter is accompanied by the excitation of its glands. In Zob, the softening and swelling of the feed occur with their own secrecy and saliva, as well as the transformation of feed nutrients due to animal enzymes, microorganisms and saliva.

Aerobic microorganisms, lactobacilles, intestinal wand, enterococci, mushrooms, yeast cells live in Zob. Hydrolyzed predominantly carbohydrates - 8 ... 13% soluble feed carbohydrates, in a small amount of proteins and fats. The finite products of the conversion of carbohydrates are dairy, acetic, propionic and oil acids.

The main function of the goiter is capacitive.

The movement of the contents from the goiter occurs due to small cuts in the area of \u200b\u200bthe skilled funnel. At first, one abbreviation appears, after 1 ... 3min, the second wave occurs, later 2 ... 3 consecutive cuts, then a long peace.

The basic mass of the content is evacuated from the goiter to the first 3 ... 6 hours, a smaller part - in the next 8 hours.

Digestion in the stomach. The contents of the goiter through the bottom department of the esophagus enters the iron stomach and causes the strengthened secretion of its juice. The secretion of the gastric juice is carried out continuously. Reception of feed stimulates the formation and selection of gastric juice in chickens to 11 ... 13 ml / h. Gastric juice contains a pepsin enzyme; Lipase is absent in it, since the birds do not feed on milk.

The mechanism of excitation of the gastric glands is nervous hormonal. The complex and reflex and gastric reflex-hormonal phases of the excitation and regulation of the gastric glands are established. Influence on gastric glands OcyTextlines through wandering and crank nerves. The strong causative agent of the gastric glands is protein; The maximum secretion of the gastric juice and the pepsin enzyme is noted when protein content in the diet in the range of 15 ... 25%. A large amount of protein in chickens, ducks and geese causes the overexcity of the gastric glands and, as a result, the oppression of their secretion.

Irony stomach performs and motor function; Rhythm movement is one reduction per minute. Content is delayed here for a short time, no more than an hour, and is mainly soaked with gastric juice. Then goes into the muscular stomach.

The digestion in the muscular stomach is intensive due to the enzymes of the gastric juice of both stomach and abbreviations of the most muscular stomach. Muscle stomach of birds exercises two types of abbreviations: phase and tonic. They are manifested at the same time. Against the background of the periodic increase and decrease in the tone of the muscles, a two-phase reduction of the stomach occurs.

The muscular stomach movement cycle begins with a reduction in the upper intermediate muscle. During its shortening, a reduction in the front main thing begins. At the beginning of the relaxation of the latter, consistent reductions in the lower intermediate and then the rear main muscle. When reducing the intermediate muscle, the contents of the cranial bag is squeezed into a sliding cavity between the plates of the cuticle of the main muscles. Subsequent reductions in the front main muscle shift the contents of a sliding cavity in the rear. Reducing the lower intermediate muscle ensures the displacement of the chims of the caudal bag into the cavity between the main muscles. The rear main muscle promotes the contents in the direction of the cranial blind bag.

The main muscles in each cycle of abbreviations produce counter movements, having a rubbing effect on particles of feed. The asymmetry of the location of the fibers in the main muscles of the stomach provides the possibility of carrying out and lateral movements.

At the same time in the muscular stomach, the chemical transformation of the feed due to the juice enzymes: the gastric, as well as the pancreas, intestinal and bile, which are thrown through a loosely closed sphincter. The sphincter between the muscle stomach and the 12-permost intestine opened during the digestion period, and the contents of the intestine with the enzymes of the pancreas, bile, intestinal juice are in the stomach. Therefore, in the muscular stomach, proteins, fats and carbohydrates are intensively digested. The time of gastric digestion is h.

The inlet and outlet in the muscular stomach is located close. In this regard, the reduction of muscle stomach is accompanied by the evacuation of liquid gastric content, and solid and larger feed particles are delayed in the stomach and are subjected to deeper transformations. The contents of the stomach enters the intestines in portions and periods.

Digestion in the intestines. It is carried out with a stripe and tribe digestion with the predominance of the closed. The digestion is characterized by a large intensity, since all the enzymes of digestive juices in the intestine are highly active.

The mechanism of excitation and regulation of the secreter activity of the pancreas reflex and hormonal.

The mechanism for the formation and release of bile reflex and hormonal. A strong causative agent is hydrochloric acid.

Well-developed intestines and villi provide intensive absorption of substances subjected to the conversion. The total suction area of \u200b\u200bchickens on average reaches 2000 cm 2. 62 ... 63% of dry substances are absorbed in the intestines, 86 ... 91% protein, 62 ... 54% fat, 80% BEV, 30 ... 50% water. Intestinal digestion time s ... 5h. *

The intestine carries out active contractual activity: the number of peristaltic movements in 15 minutes is 6 ... 10, the antiperistalistic cuts are less than 0 to 3.

The evacuation of content occurs at 30 ... 40 min, between which the peace is about 30 minutes. The intestine comes in daytime more than 400 ml, at night - about 250 ml. The amount of dry matter in the chimus is within 7.5 ... 20%. In the chimus of the intestine, there is a high activity of amylase, proteases, lipases.

The contents of portions - 30 ... 56 servings per hour - enters blind proceedings by relaxing their sphincter. The transformation of the contents of the contents in the blind process is carried out thanks to enzymes entering the chimus, their own secret and the enzymes of microorganisms inhabiting blind processes. Himus blind bags has amylase and protease activity. 10 ... 25% of the fiber, 8 ... 10% protein, a small amount of soluble carbohydrates and lipids are cleaved in blind processions.

The digestion in the blind proceedings is accompanied by abbreviations - 10 ... 12 in 1 hour. The chickens are reduced by the nature of the tonic tension of up to 80 ... 100 s.

Periodically, the sphincters are disclosed and the contents of the portions enters the rectum. On the 8th ... 10 abbreviations of the small intestine, providing the receipt of content in blind processes, the latter carry out 1 abbreviation that ensures the evacuation of the contents into the rectum.

The digestion time in the thick intestine is 6 ... 10 hours

In the rectum ends the formation of cartoons - litter. The resulting litter periodically throws out the outwards of reflexively through the cloac.

Due to the fact that birds need to travel to long distances, their inner structure is somewhat peculiar. Some individuals satisfy their natural needs in flight, including meals. In the body of the feathery, several vital systems are compacting with proper bodies in them allowing to reduce the mass of their body if necessary. The article will describe in detail the digestive system of birds, starting with the function of the capture of feed before its processing and allocating livelihoods.

Digestive organs

So that food for birds has become fuel, it must pass mechanical, chemical and physical processing. The digestive apparatus of feathered is capable of performing all the necessary functions for normal assimilation of the feed. The organs of the digestive system of birds include: beak, mouth cavity, throat, esophagus, goiter, iron stomach, muscular stomach, duodenum, liver, slim intestines, gallbladder, blind processes, straight intestine, cloaca.

Complex apparatus

The features of the structure of the digestive system of birds are caused by their diet and the fact that most of them are carried out by most of their life in the air. It requires a large amount of energy, so they eat a lot and often. Pernaya - the creatures are warm-blooded, which requires constant support for body temperature. In order to replenish the energy spent in a timely manner, the exchange processes in their organism occur intensely. The structure of the digestion and digestion organs provides fast digestion. Each single type of birds, this speed varies depending on the type of feed. In connection with the above reasons, in contrast to the reptiles, the pennate device of the food apparatus is much more complicated. Based on this, several characteristic features of the PhD physiology can be distinguished:

• plasticity of organs;
• food digestion intensity;
• feed rate of feed;
• good digestibility and suction of nutrients;
• some individuals are high adaptability to a new stern.

Short description

Before proceeding with detailed consideration of the organs, we will try to describe the functioning of the digestive system of birds briefly. The principle of its work lies in the splitting of the feed with the help of enzymes, the absorption of the optimal amount of necessary substances into the blood and the conclusion of undigested waste from the body. With the help of the beak, the bird's bird falls into the oral cavity and the esophage is moving into the stomach consisting of two parts. In the glande, it is exposed to gastric juice, which ensures its further processing. In the muscular, lined with the erased layer, the feed is peathed to a homogeneous consistency. Then the crushed mass penetrates into the small intestine, where it is finally split and absorbed into the blood. In the small intestine there are ways to communicate with the liver and pancreas. Through a clock, the non-translated residues from the intestines are output.

Beak

Birds do not have teeth, which significantly reduces the mass of the jaws and the skull itself. Instead, their upper (fornage) and lower (connected) parts are placed in horny covers. The jaw base represents intercelion and mandibular bones. The top department consists of root, backs and cutting edges, lower - from the bottom, a corner of the chin and edge. The lips and cheeks at the pennate acts beak. With it, they are mined, grabbed, and sometimes tearing their prey. Since birds can not chew, they swallow the food entirely. The beak shape is very diverse, depending on the nature of the feed, which feeds on a specific form of individuals.

Oral cavity

The oral cavity is as well as the beak, divide on the upper and lower departments. The upper part occupies a solid sky covered by the mucous layer. It is endowed with cone-shaped papillas having different lengths. Grows are directed back and help to move the feed in the esophagus. Special muscles contribute to the narrowing of the sky slit, thereby preventing the penetration of fluid into the cavity of the nose.

The auxiliary body in the mining of feed in birds is the language. Some individuals skillfully use it when capturing and pushing food. Language is located at the bottom of the mouth. Podium bone is a support for him and a bridge to the skull. He is dressed in a damaged shell and almost does not have the ability to transmit the taste of food. The configuration of the tongue is usually similar to the form of beak and depends on the characteristic features of the lifestyle of individual individuals. He had a long and sticky, in birds predators - hard and short, in herbivores - meaty.

Pharynx

There is a throat between the oral cavity and the upper esophagus. It opens several ways: a nasal and mouth cavity, a larynx slot associated with the respiratory system.

In the pharyngeal cavity, as in the mouth, several different glands are placed. The development and number of these excretory organs determine the structural features of birds. The digestive system of the currency is characterized by a strong development of glands in this area. This is due to the use of grains and other food waste, habitual for nuts and turkeys. The following types of glands are distinguished: salivary submandibular, sublingual, ear, parallers, paired beak and topless. The prismatic epithelium layer, which they are extremely high in birds. On its shape, the gland resemble a socket.

Esophagus

The esophagus is divided into two parts: the upper and lower. The first of the pharynx comes to the goiter, the second begins at the food bag and ends with a ferruginous stomach department. The esophageal shell is enjoyed by two layers of smooth muscles: longitudinal (outer) and ring-shaped. Between them is a nervous plexus called intermushkin or Auerbakhovsky. With the reduction of the muscles, the esophagus is compressed and pushes food. The digestive system of birds has glands and in this area. The passage of food facilitates the secret produced by bag-shaped organs in the mucous meter.

Goiter

The presence of goiter is distinguished far from each bird. The owners of this body are such homemade feathers, like pigeons, chickens, ceshards and turkey. Waterfowl is devoid of goiter, but they have a little extender. Many birds at the entrance to the cavity of the chest, the esophagus is significantly expanding and forms a kind of reservoir for the accumulation and processing of food. The zob occurs softening and mixing feed, as well as partial cleavage of carbohydrates. There are individuals, in which the esophagus looks like a tube of the same diameter over the entire length.

Choises, pelicans and cormorants are interested in feeding chicks. Hooking from the place of production and before the nest, they use their goiter as a handbag, in which feeds are brought. The digestive digestive system is impressive. Birds feed their whisker chicks, which is produced by special glands of goiter. This foam substance is called bird milk.

Stomach

In the digestive system of birds there are two stomach: iron, in which feed is processed using chemical enzymatic processes; and muscle stomach that crushes food mechanically. In the second stomach contains pebbles for feeding feed, acting as teeth. Intensive grinding of food contributes to highly developed muscles. Not digestible Pernavna residues tighten out in the form of compressed lumps. Sometimes they serve material for research. With their help, experts can find out what the bird feeds.

Oracle, which is intended to take vegetation and coarse products, have a well-developed muscular stomach. Those who feed on a more tender or animal food is better functioning with iron stomach.

Intestines

A distinctive feature of the digestive system of birds is a shortened intestine. As in the case of some other bodies, such a structure allows you to reduce the body weight of the bird, since the residues of food do not delay in it. The opening of the sphincter of the muscular stomach allows the crushed mass to go to the duodenum, which represents the front division of the small intestine. It includes liver, pancreas and gallbladder channels. As a result of the allocation of their enzymes, there is a complete digestion of food. The digestibility and suction in the blood of nutrients occurs along the entire length of the small intestine.

Doves are peculiar to the bile ducts. In place, where the duodenum is tightened into the loop, the pancreas with the presence of two or three ducts. This also includes the biliary liver channels, so the pigeons do not need a bustling bubble.

Between the thin and large intestine, blind processes are located, which are developed only in feathered, nursing vegetation. The rectum is the widest intestinal department. In chickens, it is about 7 cm long and 2 cm in diameter. In agricultural individuals, blind processes perform the following functions:

• split fiber through microflora enzymes;
• synthesize vitamins;
• transform nitrogenous substances;
• suction water and minerals.

Selective system

As already mentioned, the body of the body as a whole, including the digestive system of birds, is aimed at reducing their weight, due to the ability to fly. The excretory system is represented by ureters and paired kidneys. Due to the fact that the feathers are deprived of the bladder, the products of metabolism do not accumulate in their organism. This is significantly reflected on their mass. Female individuals have no right ovary.

The caudal segment of the rectum is expanded and represents a clock covered with one layer of prismatic epithelium. It is divided into three parts through two transverse rings. The front department is a chamber sine, medium-sinus for the opening of ureters, seedworks and eggs. Pork and glands are absent in this area. The mucous layer of the cloaca has a wave-like structure. In such birds, like swan, hussak and spleen, its walls are converted to the organ of copulation. The border between the rectum and the clock is the internal sphincter in the form of an annular muscle. The hole of the cloaca is lined with a multilayer epithelium. This feature of the mucosa is characteristic of gesies. It also has formation of lymphoid origin. The structure of the digestive system of birds ends with an anal sphincter.

Conclusion

The above information is the overall characteristics of information in the field of biology. The digestive system of birds is actually very individual. Its differences determines the form of individuals, the type of food, the origin, lifestyle, as well as the interaction of the feathered with the environment and the area of \u200b\u200btheir habitat.