The most important functions of the receipt of substances, their transformation and removal ...
Egyptian civilization goes its roots in IXTs. BC. At that time, more abundant than today, precipitation in the Nile Valley contributed to the formation of fertile soils and the spread of Savannon on both sides of the river. The womb tribes of the hunters were gradually concentrated in the floodplain of the river, since more remote lands were burned out by the Sun, turning into the desert. The settlement of the Nile Valley was mainly due to the neolithic farmers descended from the foothills. For the ancient archaeological cultures of Egypt, it is characteristic of: grain farming (barley, wheat-sheat), flint tools, coarse ceramics, the first products from imported Sinai copper. IV thousand BC. There was a period of active development of ancient Egypt (irrigation facilities; global structures; copper metallurgy; property inequality; mastering the practice of construction of raw bricks). Thus, a material foundation was laid, corresponding to the level of primary protortment.
The first protortment in Egypt appeared in the form of associations around the temples - nomov.. As it can be believed, the priests-rulers of Nomov as their authorities entered into fierce rivalry with each other, the result of which was the gradual concentration of power in the hands of the most successful of them. KVTZS BC. There were two clearly delimited political associations - the Nizhny and Upper Egypt, the struggle between which at the turn of the IV-III milk. BC. He led to the victory of the ruler of the Upper Egypt, which coroned himself with both crowns. The first center of the united state became Memphis.
So early to unite the whole country under the beginning of a single king equal to which in terms of the volume at the time did not yet know humanity, played its role in the acceleration of the process of institutionalization of power, the formation of an effective centralized administration, based on a powerful and branched hierarchical bureaucratic apparatus. One of the main functions of the royal power was the organization of the irrigation system in the Nile Valley and maintaining it in order. As a result, agricultural activities developed, which included the art of cultivation of grapes, cattle breeding, weaving craft, and also samples of manufacturer of first paper were carried out - papyrusAnd as a result, the spread of writing began. Already in the early period of its history, Egypt finally entered the copper century, the Egyptians began to gradually move outside their country: in Nubia, Libya, on the Sinai Peninsula. Surrounded by a halo of magnifies and legends pharaohthis period was worshiped as some kind of deities that came from heaven to Earth. At this time, the construction of giant monuments in their honor begins - Pyramids.Thus, the ancient Egypt turned into a huge, although a politically still not a very sustainable state.
3. Ancient kingdom (second half of the III thousand BC).
It was the first long period of stable and efficient central government in Egypt. Egyptian civilization entered into a breakdown of his heyday: Trade, art developed, writing on the basis of a hieroglyphic letter, was finally developed and strengthened the ancient Egyptian state as a single and to the limit of a rigid economic body, in which the horticultural and cattle breeding north was successfully combined with the agricultural south, as well as everywhere Supported by regular spills of the Nile water regime. The state acquired the features of a centralized despoty, which launched on an extensive bureaucratic apparatus, whose basis was the extensive resources of the Earth, labor and food. The first face after Pharaoh was the Supreme Sanovnik, he was the main judge who performed many different functions. Faras were no longer just deified kings - they were considered equal to the gods. There was a strict ritual of worship them, the practice of their burial was developed.
This period is characterized by the rapid growth of stone construction, the apogee of which was the construction of huge pyramids with the memorial temples and the cities of the venel soblites. The construction of the pyramid took away a lot of strength and means, but facilitated the acceleration of economic development, the accumulation of experience and skills of workers. On the construction of the pyramids, along with qualified masters, workers detachments were used from among the employment of the Egyptians.
Pharaohs conducted a fairly active foreign policy, making time from time to time to neighbors. Military prey and trade expeditions provided Egypt with a considerable influx of gold, silver, fragile resins, ivory, semi-precious stones, construction forests, etc.
Over time, the Supreme Power began to lose its thieves of magnifies, since the cult of the Sun, the eclipse power of Pharaoh. Combined independence, local aristocracy came to the fore, and the kingdom broke up on a number of princes of warring among themselves. Intelligences and riots weakened the power of Egypt, the irrigation system came into disrepair, the population suffered from cruel hunger. Two rounding centers were claimed at the Egyptian throne during Gerakleopol.in northern I. Thebeson South. The winners from this fight came out.
3 thousand years BC E.
For 3-2 thousand years BC. e. In some cities, the developed civilizations appear sewage. The very first channel for waste flow is built in ancient Egypt for 2500 years BC. e.
Began to use sunny clock. Water clocks are also known, which determine the time depending on the amount of water, flowing through the hole in the vessel.
At the beginning of the 3rd millennium BC e. There is a flourishing technique of a period of early civilization. Manufacturing technique in various types of crafts achieves perfection. New forms and types of objects of life and labor instruments are being created. Nowadays, we use many of them, their form has become traditional, such as table, chair, chair, dishes, bricks, sexes, boxes, chisel, knife, sieve, razor, drill, file, bars, scales, saw, needles, Plywood, rope, tin pipes, etc. Most of the listed items have been known before, but the forms of these items were not technically perfect.
2500 BC e.
Monsopotamia builders are beginning to build collectors and pipes with arched overlap for wastewater removal from palaces.
As a major force, they begin to use among other animals of horses and mules. Horses are harnessed into the same skewers as cattle cattle - in the yoke. The harness was put on the neck of the horse, which made it possible to use only a small part of the horsepower.
In China in 2400 BC e. In the province of Henan, the tomb of the aristocrat was built. When excavations, archaeologists have discovered 26 bells in it, each of which is capable of publishing two different notes. When the hammers hit the edges and middle part of the bells, they published tender sounds.
2300 years BC e. In Babylon, there are geographical maps that were carved on clay powders.
2000 years before e.
In China, a "mechanical man" was built - a skillful dancer. There are memories in the ancient treatise Le Tzu.
In the countries of the Ancient East, the need for calculation when exchanging in trade and in construction business leads to the emergence of mathematics. In Egypt, mathematical tasks were recorded on a papyrus, in Babylon - on clay powders. On raw clay signs, they wrote, or rather, they dragged a triangular pointed wand, pressing in clay. After that, tile for strength and durability was burned. These clay plates with clocks reached our time. On the papyrus they wrote ink - the soot divorced in water, to which Gummarabic glue was added. The writing tool was pointed and sacked at the end to hold the ink droplet, the cane feather. On parchment, and then wrote on paper with the help of bird feathers (goose or rose) ink from the juice of ink nuts, iron mood and gumiarabic. In the parchment, these inks absorbed and no longer washed off. They could only scrape. On paper, it was also writing with goose feathers that needed to pre-cut the formation, sharpening and split with a peer knife (hence the name of the knife occurred).
In China, the bamboo and old rags were made of bamboo fibers. For this, the raw materials were crushed, turned into a liquid cleaner and applied it on a flat surface (board or grid), then dried. The dried and polished lips of bamboo or rag mass were the first in the history of mankind paper. Modern paper technology uses the same principles, only instead of bamboo uses chopped wood - cellulose. It was the paper that reached our time as the main media of the information - in the form of books, newspapers, magazines.
China has built a very extensive network of roads, which complemented the water transport system.
Water clock is known in Babylon - Klepsidra. Egyptian water watches, Babylonian and Greeks are based on the principle of leakage: the time intervals were measured by the amount of water flowing out of the hole in the vessel. In China, India and some other countries, there were watches based on the principle of filling, when in an empty semi-supremous vessel with a small hole of a certain diameter floated in a larger vessel and gradually filled with water.
The carts are first equipped with wheels with knitting needles. Models and images of two-wheeled military chariots with primitive disk wheels and four-wheeled carts for the carriage of goods are known. In the carts hardened bulls and mules.
Wheels appear with spokes and bent rim.
In Central Asia begin to produce bronze.
In Central Europe, the first large mining centers arise, where the metal is cast in the form of hryvnia or strips.
1900 BC. e. In Crete, the flourishing of the Minoan civilization. She first presented the world to achievements comparable to the greatest achievements of other ancient civilizations. The palaces began to erect here. Destroyed by the earthquake they were completely rebuilt around 1700 BC. e. This revival is called the "golden age" of the Minoan civilization. The world, social equilibrium, religion, organized handicraft production allowed Crete to subjugate its power all the Mediterranean. Cradians belonged a number of innovations in building business, processing of metals, agriculture. Midway invented writing by going from the hieroglyphic letter to the so-called linear letter, not yet deciphered. The entries were made on clay signs. In Knosse, there was a dazzling palace complex - the focus of civilization. In addition to the cressta, three more palaces were built - in Fest, Malli and the closure, as well as a number of luxurious, cozy villas. The walls of them covered painting. Domestic chambers were spacious and comfortable, proportionate.
1800 BC e.
In Greece on the island of Crete used lever press.
In Babylon, ruled from 1792 to 1750. BC e. King Hammurapi, recorded his laws on the column from the Black Basalt. Inscriptions, represented by embossed men's figures and wedge-shaped signs, were subsequently deciphered. Pole from Basalt was found by French archaeologists in 1901 during the excavation of the ancient city of the Suids.
1700-1470 Minoan civilization reached its zenith. Highly developed agriculture brought surplus harvest to villas and palaces where they were stored, processed to exchange for importing goods. There was a single social system based on blood relationship. The arts and crafts flourished.
Until 1500 BC e.
Significantly reduced the cost of making bronze, from which now, except for weapons and some craft tools, make sickles, hoes, etc. during the production of bronze, copper and tin are obtained, the ratio of these components in the alloy is adjustable.
The production of iron begins by restoring iron ores in the mountains, which refers to the outstanding achievements of humanity. Wood coal is used as fuel. Iron melts at a temperature of 1539 degrees Celsius. This temperature in small mines could not yet. A raffled process of obtaining iron, which for 2 and 1 thousand to n was opened. e. It was distributed throughout the XIV century to our era (with the exception of a crucible method that did not have a significant production value) by the method of iron production. With a cheese process, iron mined on widespread and easily accessible deposits of brown limestone, lake and marsh ores. Metal was restored from iron ore at a temperature of 800-900 degrees Celsius. The process was in the mountains, which were loaded with alternate layers of pre-crushed and burned iron ore and charcoal on open fire. With the help of blowing devices (nozzles and fur, which were first leather, and then wooden and metal) in the mountain, the crude, the genuine air, from where and the name of the entire process went. As a result of the recovery on the bottom of the mountain, a comes of soft welded iron weighing up to 7 kg. The welded iron consisted of a soft metal with voids filled with a hardened slag formed from a blank breed and fuel ash. Slag from the Koma Iron removed the hammer blows. After the forging, iron became quite high, but the performance of the first stoves was small.
Over time, the performance of the furnaces increased due to an increase in the mining space and enhancement of blower devices. This method of iron production has previously mastered the tribes who lived in the mountain part of Armenia and the subordinates of the Hittian princes.
In some sources there are information that before all iron from ores began to be paid in China. The manufacture of iron on a wide scale begins only after 1000 BC. e. This method of obtaining iron influenced the development of civilization. A low-cost method of obtaining metal, which, in the subsequent millennium, was widely used in the manufacture of agricultural instruments and in handicraft production, as a result of which stone tools were ousted. As a result of widespread use of iron in the production of the craft, finally separated from agriculture and the prerequisites are created directly for exchange.
1400 BC e.
In Egypt, there is a method of producing parchment, which for a long time remained the best material for the letter. In Egypt for weighing, scales are used - shamers, which later spread in ancient Rome.
In the northeast of Mount Ararat in the village of Skoghdok Karadag, they received iron artificially from ore and knew the mechanical processing secrets. All technology was kept in deep secrecy, because he had military and economic importance. In those days, iron was worth several times more precious than gold.
1200-1100 years BC. e.
In the Valley of Mexico City (South America), the civilization of Olmekov appeared, which were the first in the chain of civilizations of this region. They did not know the wheels, did not have horses, but they created a special way of life, which received the highest embodiment in the Aztec Empire. Olmeki invented hieroglyphs and calendar, created communications and trade, cities and sculptures.
The trading peoples of Phenicia and Crete appeared the first, the most ancient alphabet. The comparative simplicity of writing and memorizing it contributed to the spread of writing. The alphabet is a system of written signs or letters designed to transmit speech sounds in any language. Alphabet received its name according to the first letters of the Greek alphabet - "Alpha" and "Beta". The Phoenician alphabet has become a significant simplification of the letter that trading demanded. He gave the beginning of the Semitic Alphabets - Aramaic, then Jewish and Arabian, Armenian, Georgian and Indian. Together with Islam, the Arabian alphabet was perceived by most Muslim peoples. Pinikyan borrowed alphabet and ancient Greeks. From the Greek alphabet lead their origin of the Latin and Church-Slavic Glabliolitsa and Cyrillic, which became the basis of the modern Russian alphabet of 33 letters. Cyrillic is one of two (along with the verbs) of the first Slavic alphabet. Named by the name of the Slavic enlightener Kirill.
In the period of the late 2000 BC e. - early 1000 g. e.
In the Transcaucasia began processing iron. At the North Caucasus, iron came from Urartu or Malaya Asia.
Early Astronomy Development Period in China. From this time to 265 N. e. Used sundial, water clock, rotating globes, compasses, gnomones.
About 1000 years BC e. On the territory of modern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala, the Ancient Mayan civilization was created on the territory of modern Mexico, Honduras and Guatemala. The ruins of the pyramids, temples, palaces, the murals of the Maya people, who created their writing with scientific knowledge in the field of medicine, mathematics, physics are preserved. The number of ancient Maya reached 20 million people. During the heyday of the Empire Maya, the number of cities reached two hundred. Among them were 20 cities with a population of over 50 thousand people. A unique architectural style was developed, in which builders built cities with original pyramids, balls for playing the ball, palaces with stepped arches. There was a wide network of trade routes, methods of intense agriculture were mastered. Of all the ancient civilizations of South and North America, only Maya possessed a writing system. With the help of a complex system of interrelated calendars, they recorded the most important dates, made astronomical forecasts, looked at such distant times, which even modern specialists in the field of cosmology are not taken to judge. Their calculations and records were based on a flexible account system, which included a symbol to designate zero. This symbol was not known to neither Greeks nor Romans. In accuracy of astronomical calculations, they exceeded other modern civilizations.
1000 years BC e.
Wooden pipes are manufactured, which will continue to play an important role in creating all mechanisms and devices for sucking and transporting water, when creating piston pumps and other mechanisms.
For the first time, wooden shovels are used, upholstered at the bottom of the iron plate. Soon Iron Kirk appears.
In Egypt, they used with indigo dye, which up to the new summer remains the main coloring agent.
In ancient Greece, an invented technical instrument is used in winemaking - a press for squeezing juice from grapes.
1000 - 700 BC. e.
In China during the time of Western and Eastern Zhou (VIII-V centuries. BC. E.) Further development received agriculture, art and crafts. In agriculture, crop rotation was developed, a new culture appeared - soybeans. It was brought to the art foundry. From this era, there have been many bronze beautiful products and gadetting bones with letters before our time. Weights flourished, metallurgy, writing. The masters of the epoch of East Zhou were cast from bronze of the product of extraordinary complexity and fright decoration. Silver and gold products - vessels for drinking and food, necklaces, belt buckles, other luxury items surprise the fineness of work and sophistication.
In West Asia, in the south of Italy, in the Balkan Peninsula, iron in the south of Romania and in Central Europe. With the help of iron secrets on the European continent there was a cutting down of the forest, and iron tools and labor tools contributed to the development of agriculture.
9 century BC e. On the relief of the Palace of Sinyariba in Ninevia, a ladder-stepladder is depicted. The stairs become an important utility tool not only in construction, but also in a mining, since mining developments began to be deeply in the ground, in mines.
8th century BC e.
In Greek polishes, and later in the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire, agriculture has reached a higher level of development than in the countries of the Ancient East. In Greece, it was the main occupation of the majority of residents. In addition to slave labor, it used the work of free landowners and rumbers. Installed calendar of agricultural work. The soil fell by manure, plowing grass, burning straw on the fields, used green couples. Wheat sowed, barley, shell, sesame, peas, lentils, beans, grown olive, grapes, figs, quince, grenades. Much attention was paid to viticulture. On the irrigation lands used all sorts of water lifting machines. For plowing, a primitive plow was used, which burned the earth, but did not turn it over. The plow was made of one piece of wood or several parts. With the propagation of iron begin to plow a plow with an iron loem. In Greece, the plow, which turns over the Earth is known from 5 c. BC e.
In Babylon, the driving road was paved by limestone squares. The gaps between the masonry were poured asphalt.
For the first time depicted by Assyrians on the relief of the 8th century. BC e. Blocks and cams, although these devices were known before.
When excavations in Nineveh (the capital of Assyria), a bell made from bronze for the first time.
About 700 years BC e.
In Assyria, the largest structure was built, where the arch was applied. This construction was a canal for supplying water built by King Sinacherib. The channel is 80 kilometers long to ensure the water of the capital of Assyria Ninevei and the King Palace in Harsabad was built on 13 years. The material for the construction was the limestone.
In Ninevei and Jerusalem were cut into the rocks of the tunnel with a length of over 500 m, designed for waste and garbage.
The most ancient metal currency of the bars were replaced by coins, first litters, then chased. It is assumed that the first coins were made in China and Egypt. Coins remain a payment tool until the recent past.
7 century BC e.
In Byzantium, consumed in the middle of the VII century. In hostilities "Greek fire" consisted of nitrate, mountain resin and flaxseed oil. In warriors with swords and arrows, he instilled superstitious fear.
In Greece, the first astronomical theories arose. The first models of the solar system were created. Fales considered the Earth with a flat disk floating on the water.
In Greece, the regular mining of iron ores and non-ferrous metals is distributed. The main centers of Greek metallurgy become samos, potnos, Corinth, Lesbos, Laconika, Aegina.
Babylon was considered the largest and rich city of the Ancient East.
The inventor of the process of the soldering of iron (before that used riveting) is often called the Greek iron from Chios Island. Apparently, the soldering technique was known before. High level reached blacksmithing craft. In the forge stood horn with manual double air-jammed furs. The central place was occupied by iron or bronze anvil. The blacksmiths used hammers, ticks, some of which were reminded of large tweezers, hinged tongs, chisels, vice, drills.
Along with the previously known non-ferrous metals and alloys - copper, gold and silver - began to apply antimony and brass.
For processing bronze and copper, casting, forging, stamping, chasoker, engraving, silvering, gilding, inlay, soldering, drawing are used. High art casting from bronze is achieved by artisans in ancient Greece. In the workshop there was a melting furnace with a special chamber separated from the furnace. A large clay vessel with metal was placed in this chamber for smelting.
Known flat plane grinded lens from crystal. Deda on excavations in the capital of Assyria Ninevia. The use of lenses in the subsequent millennium contributed to the development of optical instruments, the invention of sub-sieves pipes, microscope, etc.
Information about existing wooden and stone bridges across wide rivers. Length of the bridge over r. Ether in Babylon was over 300 m.
About 600 years BC e.
In Babylon, King Nebuchadnezzar was built the palace, which is called the "Hanging Gardens of Semiramides". For magnificent gardens with rare trees and fragrant colors, this construction is named one of the seven wonders of the world. During the reign of this king, much attention was paid to the builders to strengthen the walls. As a rule, the walls of the structures were erected from the layers of burned brick on a solution of natural asphalt and from raw bricks on clay. Brick raw was used for inner walls, burned - for external. Brick laid on a mastic from a mixture of sand and asphalt. In some cases, solid seams were made in the form of the asphalt layer, the clay layer every four rows of bricks was made, then cane mats were laid on top of the asphalt and then all this was repeated.
For the first time apply hollow casting when casting large bronze statues.
When water pumping, a waterproken wheel was used, from the circumference of which vessels were located. They were buried in them. The wheel rotated, and the water rose up. This device made it possible to produce water in a large volume. It played a big role and created prerequisites for the invention of the water wheel.
With the help of rotating stone millstones begin to grind cereals. This device is important for the history of the development of technology in that it was in this adaptation in the future I managed to replace the manual force of the force of animals for the first time, and later to use water energy.
In Greece, the philosopher Falez Miletsky (approx. 625 - approx. 540 BC) for the first time determined that amber, grated matter, attracts light items. Thus, the first manifestations of electricity were revealed.
Pythagoras in his astronomical theory express an opinion about the ferrousness of the Earth.
Aristotle (384-322 BC) - Greek scientist said that Fales first discovered such a fact as attracting iron sawdust and pieces of iron by some types of iron ores. According to other sources, magnetism is first seen in China, and in 2000 g bd. e.
The lathe is invented. The invention is attributed to the aodore of Samos.
The Babylonian tower was constructed, the foundation of which was represented at the length of each side in 90 m. The height of the tower was 90 m. At the top of it was built a height of 15 m.
7 - 6 century BC. e. In Assyria, with the king, Adada Nirara was built a long and very wide bridge over the old euro channel. Its length was 112 meters, and the width is 21 meters. He was a series of supports from burnt bricks, standing at a distance of 9 meters one from another, with spans, blocked by two layers of cedar logs. Out of logs were covered on top of a stone pavement. Such an approach was used by the ancient builders and for the construction of large buildings. To increase their width, one or two rows of columns were put, the beams were placed on them, and on runs - coverage beams. In many cases, the size of the temples increased by installing only one column in the center.
6 century BC e.
In Persia, an extensive road network is created. The length of one of the highway amounted to 2500 km.
Persian King Cyrus organized regular courier mail on the main road roads. Special courtying stations were built to change horses. Such a mail delivery practice is known in the Roman Empire, and later this sample of mail delivery is being implemented into practice and in the XVI century. n. e.
Greek philosopher Aximandre (approx. 610-546 BC) invented quadrant, which subsequently contributed to the development of astronomy.
In ancient Greece, mathematics begins to develop - the science, built on strict logical evidence, as well as astronomy. By this time refers to the construction of mathematical theories, as well as the first astronomical theories.
The Egyptians have learned to distinguish the planets from the stars. On the arches of the temples and tombs they portrayed the cards of the starry world.
In ancient Rome, the Cloac Maxim Channel was built, which is serving the Romans to our time.
In ancient Greece and Rome, the production of clay products quickly developed, a large number of artisans were engaged in them. They made dishes, lamps, artistic ceramics, terracotta figurines. All the dishes were made on a pottery circle. Up to 5 V. BC e. Greek artistic ceramics was painted, the embossed ceramics is spread later. From the end of the 5th century BC. e. Extremely diverse in shape and prescription ceramic vases began to cover with black lacquer with a black tint. Decorated with ornaments using special stamps and matrices.
In ancient Greece, marble is mined in large quantities. Open marble developments are known near Athens and underground development on Paros and Naxos Islands. Removed marble or in the form of rectangular blocks, or in the form of pieces of incorrect form, depending on the structure of the layers. Globs of marble were treated with a sledgehammer and chisel, and then shuled by pointed chisel.
In construction machinery in Rome in 6-1 V.V. BC e. Adjourn the Greek Orders. At this time, the Romans begin to create arched and vaulted structures in the construction technique, large public buildings erect. A giant amphitheater with the Colosseum with a length of 187.5, 156.7 width and up to 46.6 m, which accommodated up to 90 thousand people was constructed.
In the construction engineering of ancient Greece and Rome, clay was widely used, from which raw baked bricks were made. For the manufacture of raw bricks, the clay was purified from solid enclosures and stirred with small straw vessels. Then from this mass in spring or autumn, when a more uniform drying was provided, a brick was formed. After forming, it was kept for 2 years and only then used in construction. The outer walls of the buildings were laid out in some brick, the inner partitions - in the Pollipich. In addition to clay in construction, limestone, marble of a variety of colors, sandstone and volcanic origin materials were used. Granite and porphyr went to the manufacture of whole columns and facing plates for walls and floors. The binder served the lime of the three-year-old age, which consisted of one part of the limestone test and three parts of the sand. Wooden, clay and stone walls were plastering, applying plaster solutions of plaster. The plaster solution was applied to the surface with several layers and after drying it acquired high strength. The disgraced coating layer was painted, then the brush was applied with a lacquered film of white melted wax dissolved in oil. It ensured the durability of stucco coloring.
550 BC e. In ancient Greece in the city of Ephesus, famous architects Harsphon, his son Metagen, Peonitis and Demetrius, built one of the seven wonders of the world - the temple of Artemis.
530 BC e.
In ancient Rome and ancient Greece, large centralized water supply systems are built. In the city, water was served by gravity through the channels, special ceramic pipes in wells from which it was raised with the gate. When crossing the valleys and ravines, the channels were packed by special bridges - aqueduct. Some aqueducts have survived to this day and are samples of ancient engineering art. When construction, arched construction was used. Water in the pipes came to the palaces and houses of nobles and rich citizens, as well as to baths, fountains and pools.
In Greece, the Builder Evpalinos on the island of Samos built a tunnel in the rock with a length of over 1000 m for water supply. However, in the construction of water pipes succeeded the most Romans.
Mineral mining is widely conducted, especially in ancient Greece and Rome. Over thousands of slaves worked on some mines. In Greece, the most famous Lavria mines are most famous, they mined a lead shine from which lead was paid.
In Rome for the construction of cities, roads, water supply systems, as well as to meet the demand of handicraft production, a large amount of metal and building material is required. The work of numerous slaves provided Rome Iron, Copper, Gold and Silver. During extraction used Kaylo, chisel, scrap, sledgehammer, wedge. On the surface of the ore was transported manually in baskets or leather bags. They painted water.
The mine development of ore begins. Separate mines reached the depth of more than 100 m. In some mines, the ore raised in Badjah with a manual gate.
520 BC e. According to the then ideas about the land, the Greek Hecatiaios Mietie (560/550 - 485 BC. Er) is drawn one of the first cards of the earth's surface.
5 V. BC e.
In Egypt, Phenicia, Ancient Greece use abacus (from the Greek ABAX - a board) - a countable tool, which is a plate, covered with a layer of sand. There were lines on it with a sharp stick and pebbles and bones were moved in the resulting columns (as in Russian accounts) for arithmetic computing. In ancient Rome, Abak was called Calculi or Abaculi. Later from this word, the Latin calculatore occurred (calculated) and Calculus (calculus), calculation.
In the farming of Greece, a real plow is used, which turns over the plasters of the Earth. Later in Italy, an improved plow with wheels and a cutter is used. Bread stamped with sickles and braids.
Persian king Darius completed the canal between the Red and Mediterranean seas. According to some sources, the construction of the canal began to 1200 BC. e. The canal was operated several centuries, repaired several times. From 9 c. BC e. The movement of ships on it is suspended, afterwards it was closed and abandoned. In the XIX century Instead of the old channel, a new, Suez canal was built. The second famous channel of the ancient world was the "kings canal", connecting the Ephrath River and Tiger, with a length of 400 km.
With the development of cities and trade of ancient Greece and ancient Rome, wheel transport is widely distributed.
In the Roman Empire there is a large-scale construction of roads and bridges. 372 large roads were built, some of which combined Rome with its provinces. The roads were built, as a rule, from gravel, cobweb and dashest stone bonded by a lime solution. The thickness of the road coating reached 1 m. The famous indian road was paved from stone octagons, which gave her special strength. The profile of the road was shown, on both sides it was built by stone parapets and almost through each kilometer put stone poles. In the swampy places built roads with wooden coating.
The elevation time of Athens. The flourishing of Greek architecture and construction contributes to the flourishing of Greek architecture and construction. Greek architects belongs to one of the most important achievements of architecture - the creation of a warrant (regular system of architectural forms): Doric, Ionical, Corinthian. Takes are being developed for the harmonic proportionality of individual parts of buildings.
Blacksmiths use hinge ticks.
The processing of cotton, which has been known before and earlier.
The scissors used for shearing sheep, cutting and cutting matter, as well as for having hair and mustache.
In the Military Technique of Athens the main military equipment was the fleet, which had almost 300 ships. For maritime fighting, combat ships were built, in which the noses were covered with copper. Transport ships served for the transport of troops. The most common type of military Greek ship was three-stage trielers - a high-speed, long ship with good maneuverability. A ship was located up to 170 rowers. The number of the rest of the crew, including soldiers for the landing, reached 200 people.
Carpenters use frame saws with an iron cutting part.
Protective wheeled mechanisms and gear gear begin to appear. The inventors of these devices were considered ancient Greek scientists Archimedes (approx. 287-212 BC) or Geron Alexandria (I century BC). In a later period, gear crankshafts become one of the main elements of many mechanisms and machines.
Silver mining is underway in Greece in mines, the depth of which reaches 120 m. At least 1000 slaves were at mining. Shakhty ventilated naturally. Sometimes they satisfied special ventilation galleries. Mountain production lit into small clay lamps in which oil poured. Lamps were installed in special niches.
Fundamentals of the terminological dictionary
Barnaul, 2005.
Developed by L.G.Apencheva, Art. Teacher Department of Philosophy
Course: Culturalology
The manual contains material according to historical era of culture, starting from primitive times and inclusive by the XIX century.
It was developed for the purpose of orientation in the chronological dates of cultural eras, the concepts of terms encountered in the process of studying the subject of cultural studies are given, and also lead to the system of cultural monuments, which will greatly facilitate students to memorize the material in the process of preparing for exams and credit.
When developing a methodological instruction, literature was used:
1. Culturalology. The history of world culture. Ed. prof. Markova A.N.: Culture and Sport; Unity, 1995.
2. Cultural Science: Tutorial for universities. Ed. prof. A.A. Kazadugina, M., 1997.
Culture of primitive era
Basic chronological dates:
Primitive society 40 thousand l BC - 4 thousand years BC
Wheld century (Paleolithic) 40 thousand l BC - 12 thousand years BC
Middle Age (Mesolith) 12 thousand l BC - 7 thousand years BC.
The new eyelid century (neat) 7 thousand l BC - 4 thousand years BC.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of material culture |
| Syncretism (lane with Greek. - compound) - a combination of variety of views. Archetype (from Greek. - Start, image) - Prim, primary form. Animism (from Lat. - Spirit, Soul) - Vera In the fact that the soul exists independently from the body. Magic (from Greek. - Magic) The way of exposure to nature and anyone, characteristic of a primary society, a predetermined impact on a thing or an image in order to influence the connection on the principle of communication in everything in everything. Fetishism (from Franz. - Idol, Talis - Mans) - faith in the supernatural properties of material things. | Orinyak era - the culture of the late Paleolithic period, is named because of the cave Orignac (France). Mezino art - the name got due to the Mezino parking lot (Ukraine). Maykop culture - named because of the famous Monument of May-Coptic Kurgan. Tourbinsky burial ground (for chamber) Settlements: Keynenmedding (per. From the Danish "Kitchen Heaps") Roman terramars (from lat. - Earth) - fortified settlements at the piles of the town Fortress Parking Selish Breaky Dolmen (from Brett. Table and Stone) Mengir (from Bert. Long Stone) - Some stone column columns (from Bret. Round stone) - Stones are located in the form of a circle of the tomb of Kurgan |
Questions for self-test:
1. What is archetype?
2. Tell us about the pictorial forms of primitive art.
3. Name the types of settlements of the primitive era.
4. What kind of burials did you remember during the period?
LITERATURE
· Brief philosophical encyclopedia. - M.: Progress, 1994.
· Grigunina N.G. History of world art culture, - Tver, 1993
· Perchitz A.I. and others. History of primitive society. - M.: Higher School, 1974
· History of the ancient world in artistic and historical images. - M.: Enlightenment, 1968.
· Culturalology. Ed. Kefeli I.F.-S.-PB.: Specialtherapure, 1996.
Culture of ancient Egypt (4-3 thousand years BC - Rubezh AD).
Ancient Egypt is the first state on Earth, claiming world domination. The most important feature of the culture of ancient Egypt - protest against death, which led to the occurrence of art of the manufacture of mummies, the construction of the pyramids. Fine art is inherent with a plane image of figures, canonical conventionality in the transfer of body and legs, geometric decorativeness with a symmetric pattern, strict linearity of the composition. The stagnant nature of the ancient Egyptian society determined, in general, the uniform type of ancient Egyptian art and culture.
Questions for self-test:
1. Tell us about the features of the religion of ancient Egypt.
2. How did the Egyptians relate to death?
3. What is the most important feature of the culture of ancient Egypt?
4. Tell us about the most important types of architecture of ancient Egypt.
LITERATURE
· The World History. In 10 tons. - M.: Mimovitisdat, 1956. T.1 - P.
· Grigunina N.G. The history of world artistic culture. - Believe, 1993
· The Ancient East. Ed. V.V. Strew. - M., 1953.
· History of the ancient world in artistic and historical images. - M.: Enlightenment, 1968
· Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center, 1997
· Culturalology. Ed. Kefels I.F.-S.-PB.: Specialtherapure, 1996
· The history of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A.I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996.
Culture of the ancient grasopotamia (two-frequencies)
4 thousand years BC - Lights of our era
Culture Twire (Valley of the Tiger and Ether River) is one of the most ancient foci of human civilization. In two-range, various public elements were rapidly replaced by each other:
Schumer and Akkad- 1U-shl. l.
Babylonia - P2 to N.- The heirs of the Sumeroackadian civilization, with the king of Hammurapi, the city of Babylon combined all the areas of Sumer and Akkard, a famous arch of laws appeared.
Assyria - 1 thousand n.E. Performed by Paphos of Power, glorified the power and victory of conquerors, the weakening of religious views led to the image of cruel scenes in art.
Iranian Empire - U1 in. BC. It is characterized by secular art, more calm, there is no stiffness in it, which is traced in the art of Assyrians.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | Monuments of Culture |
| Water cult is a source of goodwill bringing the crop and life of the cult of heavenly luminaries-in their movement Babylonians saw the manifestation of the Divine Will of the sixtiethyolic system - exists in the calculus of time in minutes, the Schumerian clinies are calculated - the oldest writing of the Sumerians, based on signs of wedge-shaped signs Zigkurat - High Multistage Tower of Brick Zoroastrianism - State Religion in Iran. Named so named Prophet Zoroastra Basic principles: the opposite of two principles - good and evil; Faith in the victory of good role in the ritual plays fire | Shamash goddess Sin - God Luna Adad - God Imgregate Ishtar - Goddess of Love Near the God of Death Irr - God War Wilgi - God Fire Zoroastrianism: Ahuramadze - God Azriman - the carrier of the evil stand of SEMURVA - an anchita fertility symbol - an anchita goddess | Sumerian clinical plates of the Poem "Golden Age" of the Gilgamesh Library of Ashurbanipal Library of Hammurapi Laws Babylonian Tower Hanging Gardens Semiramid (Assyrian Queen IX century BC) Sassanid art |
Questions for self-test:
1. How to explain the cruelty of the morals of Assyrian art?
2. What are the achievements in science at the inhabitants of the two frequencies?
3. What is characteristic of the Babylonian art?
Literature:
The World History. In 13 volumes. -M.: Mimovitisdat, 1957. T3.
Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia. In 2 tons. 2nd ed., 1987.
Mozheiko I. V. 7 of 37 wonders. - M.: Science, 1983
Grigunina N. G. History of world artistic culture. - Tver, 1993.
Radunun A. A. Culturology.- M.: Center, 1997.
Culture of ancient India 3 thousand liters. BC. - Rubezh AD.
India is one of the oldest foci of human civilization with a high source of culture. The material, spiritual and artistic culture of ancient India occupied a worthy and honorable place in the treasury of world civilization. In the XI century BC. The ideology becomes Buddhism, who has become one of the great world religions. Great his influence on literature and art.
| Terms and concepts | Gods and heroes | Monuments | |
| Literature | architecture | ||
| The pictograph is a drawing that reflects the content of anybearings (literally from Sanskrit "Sacred Knowledge") - the ancient monuments of the ancient Indian literature III - II century. BC. contained information about the agriculture, processing of metals, medicine, geometry, invention Chess Sanskrit - Processed Language of the late-wing literature, is widespread as an important means of communication SUTRA - guidelines for sacrificial rituals of Varna-Custom building: Castes (professional activities) Varna (for estimiaries ): 1. Brachmans (representatives of the priests) 2. cocksharya (military to know) 3. Delivery 4. Speeds - the labor population is not enough - the social group of the lowest class, which was out of the caste, consisting of ex-slaves and representatives of the despised Nirvana professions - a state without any Sansara's earthly desires - the doctrine of reincarnation of the soul of karma - the law of rewarding | Buddha - "Autumn Truth" Brahma - Creator of the Universe Vishnu - Her Saving Shiva - Her destroying Bharata Krishna Rama | Vedas consist: 1. Rigveda - Hymns of mythological content 2. Samaped - chants 3. Yazhurnweda - Description of Vedic Rituals 4. ATGRAVABED - Magic spells 5. "Mahabha-Rata" Ramayana " | Palace of Tsar Ashoki Stupa - the cult factor of the tooran - the gate in the circular fence of Stupa Stubha - Monolithic poles Statue of Shiva in Gudimallam |
Questions for self-test:
1. Explain the essence of the varno-caste.
2. Religious flows of religions of the ancient Indian society.
3. Describe the culture of ancient India.
Literature:
Great Soviet Encyclopedia. 2nd ed. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1991.
Gallet P. P. World History of Arts. - M.: Sovnek, 2000.
Greenzer G. F. Religion of Ancient India. - M., 1959.
Mozheiko I. V. 7 of their 37 miracles of the world. 2nd ed. - M.: Science, 1983.
Myths of the peoples of the world. Encyclopedia in 2 tons. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1987, T. 1.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 tons. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Culturalology. Ed. Kefheli I. F. - S.-PB.: Specliterature, 1986
Culture of the Ancient China (2 thousand l. BC. E. - Rubezh. N. E.)
China is the most isolated from famous civilizations. The Chinese believed that life was the creation of divine, supernatural power, everything in the world is in motion as a result of a collision of light and darkness. It is peculiar to the cult of nature, the cult of ancestors, the deification of the royal power. In the middle of 1 thousand to n. e. Three ideological directions are drawn up (hereinafter the philosophical and religious systems): Taoism, the teachings of Confucius, Buddhism. Chinese culture is very distinctive: the regulation of life was strict, even the most noble people were not the owners of their fate. The spheres of culture were subject to the state.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | Monuments of Culture | ||
| Literature | architecture | Inveretic | ||
| Taoism - the teaching, according to which the whole world is subordinated to the Unified Law - "Dao", the founder of Lao Tzu (IX - Rube, W C. BC. E.) Dao (Path, Law) - the source of all existing Confucianism - a religious-worldview system emerged Xi - x in. BC e. This is, first of all, the set of rules, moral mains, which was based on the cult of obedience of senior pagoda - a building consisting of a support in the form of wooden pillars, with a tiled roof having a raised up the edges and a clearly indicated eaves | Lord of the Earth Dead Ancestors of the Emperor Gods of the Sun, Moon, Thunder, Rain, Wind Gods of War, Fire Confucius 188 Governors of the past Local perfume | "Book of Songs" "Book of Change" "Historical notes" Treatise "Mathematics in 9 chapters" | Great Wall Large Pagoda Wild Geese Temple Ensemble "Temple of Sky" in Beijing | Water Mill Magnetic Device (Proceel Compass) Pump Seismographer Porcelain Globe |
Questions for self-test:
1. Tell us about the main religious and philosophical systems of China.
2. Name the technical inventions of the ancient Chinese.
3. What was the regulation of the life of ancient China?
Literature:
The World History. In 13 volumes. - M.: Mimovitisdat, 1956. T.1., P.
Gallet P. P. World History of Arts. - M.: Contemporanik, 2000.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 tons. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Mozheiko I. V. 7 of 37 wonders. 2nd ed. - M.: Science, 1976.
The history and culture of China. - M.: Science, 1976.
Radugin A. A. Culturology. - M.: Center, 1997.
Culturalology. Ed. Kefheli I. F. - S. - PB.: Specialty, 1996.
Antique culture
The concept of "antiquity" appeared in the Renaissance, when this term (from lat.-ancient) was introduced to determine the Greco-Roman culture. The cultural heritage of the ancient states had a huge impact on the culture of all nations of Europe.
1. Culture of ancient Greece (3 thousand BC. E.- X. N.E.)
1. The era of croto-mixed culture is 2 thousand liters. BC e. - XI century. n. e.
The oldest civilization in the territory of Greece is the names of Crito-Mycena, the centers of it - the island of Crete and the city of Mycenae. All life in Crete focused around the palaces, the wall painting deserves special attention. Religion played a huge role. There was a special form of the royal power - theocracy, in which secular and spiritual power belongs to one person.
2. Homeric period IX - YIII centuries. BC e.
This period is called Homerovsky - by the name of the Great Homer, it is distinguished by poor material culture. It is characterized by simple coarse ceramics, lack of monumentality, imperious form of works of decorative art.
3. Archaic period Y - IY BB. BC e.
It is characterized by the final decomposition of the generic community and the formation of an ancient policy - the city-state. At that time, a great colonization was like - the development of the Herbichery of the Mediterranean, Black and Marmara Seas. For Greek religion, politicalism is characterized. There was the first philosophical system of antiquity - naturophilosophy.
4. Classic period Y - IY centuries. BC e.
It is characterized by the flourishing of Greek culture, the center of which are Athens. The main task of the art of the classic period is a true image of a person - strong, energetic, complete dignity and equilibrium of spiritual forces.
5. The era of Hellenism IY - I BB. BC e.
This is the era of the spread of Greek culture throughout Alexander Macedonian. Construction of new cities, the development of navigation, military equipment contributed to the rise of mathematics, mechanics, astronomy, geography, as well as the spread of the Greek education system. Hellenistic masters show an increased interest in person, characteristic features of sculpture - dynamism, expressiveness.
| Terms and concepts | Gods and heroes | Monuments of Culture | ||
| literature | architecture | sculpture | ||
| Tolos-type of the Tsarist Tomb (Dome Tomb) Polis-City-State, the civil community which belonged to the surrounding city of S.-H. Territory Olympic Games - Sports, - Dedicated to Zeus Pythiy Games - Sports and Music Competitions in honor of Apollo Istimian Games in honor of Poseidon Kuros- Sculpture of the Nude Board Crackon, depicting a woman in a draped dress Idyll - a special kind of mime's poetry, short dramatic Scenes Eclecticism-desire to combine elements of various schools of boletides- buildings of urban councils | Chaos Gaa (Earth) Tartar (underground) Uranium (Sky) Titans - children of gay and uranium Kronos (time) Zeus-Gromo-Virgin Hera-Ladyman Sky Poseidon-Lord of the sea Aid- Lord of the Underground Kingdom of Apollo-God of Light and Poetry 9 Muses - Patronery of Arts and Sciences Aphrodite - Goddess of Beauty Gefestrah God Fire Arrest God of War Athena-Goddess Mudrosti Demetra Patronizer Agriculture Athena- Patroniste of Weaving Dionis- Patronis Winemaking Hermes- Patron of Trade | "Illiade" and "Odyssey" of Homer; "Theological"; The tragedy of Eschil "Prometheus chained"; Tragedy sofokla about king edie | Rhodes colossse - one of 7 miracles of the world, height 35 m Chess tomb in Mynaeh Faros Lighthouse in Alexander-Ii-One of 7 Miracles of the World The Goddess of the Winds in Athens Temple of Zeus in Olympia Anseam Bg Athenian Acropolis of Mausoleum in Galicarneas is one of the 7 wonderland Theater in the epidaurus | FIDI: "Athena Warper" "Athena-Parfenos" Zeus "(one of 7 miracles of the world" Discobol "Mirone" Gera "," The wounded Amozonka "Polycott" Polycott "Pravena Milos" Mika Samofrakinskaya "Fernese Bull" "Aphrodite Book" "Laocoon" |
2. Culture of ancient Rome (Us V.Do N.E.-U V.N.)
In P-1 V. BC. Hellenic states were conquered by Rome. From this time, Italy becomes the center of an ancient culture.
Etruscan culture (1 thousand liters BC- in. BC)
The oldest on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula preceding
Roman and has a great influence on it. For the fine art of Etruscans is characterized by realism.
Rome culture in the royal period (e-u1 b.
At this time, Rome developed as a state-state Greek type.
The period of the early republic (U1 sh. BC)
This period is characterized by the introduction of the Romans to a higher Greek culture, the emergence of oratory is associated with the formation of the republican system. The characteristic feature of the thinking of the Romans was practicing.
Roman Empire - from 31 BC - in. AD The huge state of the ancient world, including the Eastern Mediterranean, North Africa, most of Europe. Achievements in the natural sciences are noted, one of the achievements of Roman culture is the literature of the early Empire, portrait sculpture received special distribution. At the end of P.N.E. The crisis begins, a characteristic feature of which was a low level of literacy, cutting of morals, pessimism.
In 395, the empire disintegrates to the Western center in Rome and East with the center in Constantinople. The history of the culture of the late ancient period is in the fight against the declaving ancient tradition with new, Christian principles.
476 is considered the end of the ancient world, antiquity, the beginning of the Middle Ages.
| Terms and concepts | Gods | Monuments of Culture | ||
| literature | sculpture | architecture | ||
| Toga-Roman apparel Atriya - the inner janitor of the Basiliki- Buildings, where trade transactions were made and the court of amphitherators of the building were arranged, where the gladiatorial battles were arranged, and the public actions of the circus were held, where the chariot competition was happening, the terma-complex complex of bathrooms took place, a favorite place of spending Noble Romans Where, in addition to Bata, there were snacks, libraries, small scenic platforms Togatus-type of the statue depicting a speaker in Tog Messiah- in Christianity: Nissed Over the Divine Savior of Mankind | Jupiter-identified with Zeus thunderstorms Neptune-god of the sea Pluto-god of the underground kingdom Mars-God War Junon-Vladychitsa Sky Minerva - Goddess of Wisdom Cirera- Patronizing Agriculture Venus - Goddess of Beauty Volcano-god Fire Mercury - Patron of Trading Diana - Goddess Hunting, Patrone of Animals Janus deity entrance and exit, had 2 faces home gods: Lara, Genius, Penate goddess Roma- patronizer of the Roman Empire Jesus Christ | "Notes about the Gallic War of Caesar" Estore History "Plinia Junior Poetry Vergilia, Horace, Ovida Roman" Metamorphosis "Apulela | "Brute" "Orator" Busts of Cicero, Caesar | The Colosseum - the largest amphitheater of the ancient world Pantheon-Temple in the name of all the gods of the temple of Jupiter on the Capitol Hill Triumphal Arch-New Type of Monumental Construction, which contributed to the construction of aqueducts, bridges |
Questions for self-test:
1. Call outstanding antique culture figures.
2. What epochs can be allocated in the history of ancient Greece and ancient Rome?
3. What is the influence of Greek culture in Roman?
4. Tell us about science in ancient states.
Literature:
Bonnar A. Greek civilization. - M.: Art, 1992.
Bonnar A. Culture of ancient Rome. - M.: Science. 1985. T.1.
Gallet P.P. World History of Arts. - M.: Contemporanik, 2000.
Kumanjsky K. The history of the culture of ancient Greece and Rome. - M.: Higher School, 1990.
Ancient civilization. - M.: Thought, 1989.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 T. -M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Kun N.A, legends and myths of ancient Greece. Alma-Ata, 1985.
Kochansky V.V., History of Culture of Western Europe. M.: IP.
Ecoperos, 1998.
Culturalology. Ed. Kefheli I. F. - S.-PB.: Specialty, 1996.
The history of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on-Don:
1. Culture of the ancient Slavs (in-1x centuries)
Ancient Slavs were people of Vedic culture. The main monuments of Slavic antiquity are sacred songs, myths,
legends.
By the time of the adoption of Christianity, the Slavic religion did not have time to work out
strict Molds of Cults.
Upcoming in Kiev Vladimir, the Red Sun (1015) was held a pagan reform. Slavs, in addition to Greek, had their original system of writing writing writing. Memory of ancient
a nodule letter remained in the language and folklore.
2. Culture of Kievan Rus (1x-hp centuries)
The beginning of the era of Kievan Rus is customary to the chronicle story about
Calling to the reign in Novgorod in 862. Varangian Princes Rüric, Sineus, Trumor, or to determine the time of Kiev's campaign of Oleg in 882
Complete the reign in Kiev Yaroslav Wise (1919-1054),
either bring to Vladimir Monomha (1113 - 1125).
The most important event of the cultural life of this period is the adoption of Russia Christianity. This choice was made in 998 by Prince Vladimir. The factor that prepared the adoption of Christianity Russia was the creation by brothers Kirill and Methodius about 1x in. Slavic writing. Russian literature was born in x1 in. And it was elitar. The leading role in the literary process was played by the Church. Among the genres of the ancient Russian literature, the chronicle occupies a central place .. Another common genre is live. Under the great impact of the church was another form of ancient Russian art- Architecture. With the arrival of Christianity, the construction of churches and monasteries are widely begins. Stone construction began.
The Kievan Rus of the Domongolian period turned into a country of highly developed culture, asked the type of cultural and historical development of the Russian people, in which Christianity and paganism were closely intertwined.
| Terms and concepts | Gods and saints | Monuments of Culture | |
| Literature | Architecture | ||
| Folklore (from the English - folk creativity) - a set of folk rivants of cosmogony (from Greek. "Cosmos" - the world, the Universe + "Gone" - Birth) - a complex of myths on the origin of the world of theogonia - a complex of myths about the origin of the Gods of Anthrohonia - a complex of myths On the origin of the people of the wheelchade (from the lat. - The first day of the new month) - the celebration of the birth of a new sun at the end of December the Kapareche - the place of the sacrifice of the spell - special vessels depicting 12 drawings constituting the circle - a symbol of 12 months of May - Spring symbol, Presenting a small Christmas tree decorated with ribbons of the Volkhivi - Miners of the ancient religion Hamartiology - the doctrine of sin and salvation, which is the main content of Christian religion chronicle - the genre in the Old Russian literature, which is a consistent description of historical events Ancient Russian book - a manuscript made up of notebooks stitched into a wooden Binding, covered with skin Life - genre in ancient Russian literature, lives e of the famous monks, bishops and others. Weaching - the genre of ancient Russian literature; Speech of the didactic content, aiming the goal of edification of grains - the technique of execution in the jewelry and applied art of ancient Russia, at which the pattern was attacked by the pattern, consisting of Skan balls - a jewelry patterned product made of fine wire soldered on a metal surface, whose partitions were filled with multi-colored enamel | Svarog Perun Veles (Hair, Later Swimit0 Chernobog Maren Yarilo Kupala Kostroma Dazhbog Strebogue Semargl Mokosha Horse First Russian Saints Boris and Gleb | "Tale of Bygone Years" Ostromirovo Gospel Mstislavovo Gospel Tale of Boris and Gleb Life Feodosiya Pechersk "Word about Law and Grace" Lavrentievsky Chronicle of the Ipatiev Summer's teaching Vladimir Monomakh | Kiev-Pechersk Monastery Ilyinsky Underground Monastery Cathedral of Kiev Sofia Golden Gate Sofia Cathedral in Novgorod |
Questions for self-test:
1. Tell us about the main spiritual components of the worldview of the ancient Slavs in the velebook.
2. What influenced the adoption of the Russia of Christianity?
3. List the genres of the ancient Russian culture.
4. Name the main monuments of culture of Slavic antiquity.
Literature:
Gallet P. P. World History of Arts. - M.6 contemporary, 2000
Rybakov B. A. Paganism of the ancient Slavs. - M.: Science, 1981.
Lyubimov L. Art of Ancient Rus. - M.: Enlightenment, 1974.
Readings on the history of Russia in 4 tons. T. 1. - M.: Miros, 1994.
Radugin A. A. Culturology. M.: Center, 1997.
The history of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on Don: Phoenix, 1996
Introduction to culturalology. Education. Location. For universities. - M.: Vlados, 1996
Russian culture XIY - XYII centuries
The second half xiy in. It is determined by the rise of Russian culture as a result of the success of economic development and victory in the Kulikov battle (1380). The struggle of Russian people with foreign conquerors is the main topic of literary works. The widespread architecture received, iconography, fresco. Wall painting in Russia of this time belong to the "Golden Age."
End XY - XYI centuries. He was crowded for the historical and cultural development of Russian lands. The country was completely freed from the Tatar-Mongolian yoke, the formation of a single Russian state continued. In Russian culture, secular elements are enhanced. A big role played typography. The architecture reflected ascending the international role of the Russian state. In painting, a growing interest in real historical persons and events is manifested.
Russian Culture XYII century. - At this time, serfdom was finally formed, this period can be called medieval Rus. A sharp exacerbation of the class struggle determined the name of this century - "Buntish".
The formation of the Russian nation begins. The formation and development of a realistic orientation occurs, an interest in human
personality.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | ||
| Literature | art | Architecture, monasteries | |
| Terracotta - Ceramic products from an unconditioned clay, red-brown and creamy flowers of the SNIA - Association of the Orthodox and Catholic Churches Recognition of the primacy of the Roman Pope Characters - a church-heading book containing Psalms, Psalrty's prayers - a collection of Psalms, which are held in the Old Testament "Sampling" of culture ( Secularization) - the process in the Russian culture of XYII century., associated with the departure from church traditions, giving it Personne Personal painting - Russian portrait painting (PIC person) appeared in XYII century. "Warred pattern" - a stylistic direction in the ancient Russian architecture of the XYII century, reflecting the addiction and abundance of decorative motifs | Life for Alexander Nevsky "Tale of the Grade Creek" Zadonshchyna Psaltry "Apostle" by Character by Domostroy Crowner Vasily Burtseva Grammar M.Srytsky "Consciousness Convenient" | Creativity F. Grek Creativity A. Rublev: "Trinity", frescoes "Scary Court" Creativity S. Ushakov: 2Spas Independent 2 Foundry Art: Tsar-gun King Bell | Moscow Kremlin Ensemble Cathedral Vasily Blessed China City-City White City Church of Ascension in Kolomenskoye Assumption Cathedral Arkhangelsky Cathedral Church of the Intercession in Ffilah Monasteries: Novodevichy Trinity-Sergiev Solovetsky |
Questions for self-test:
1. In which monuments of literature found his reflection of the struggle of the Russian people against the Tatar-Mongolian yoke?
2. What features are inherent in Russian architecture and painting the XiY-XY century period.
3. As reflected the secularization in the Russian culture of XYIIV.
Russian culture Hush in.
Overcoming Russia's upset from Western Europe is associated with Peter's reforms 1 (1672-1725). In Russia, the autocratic authorities are approved - aabsolite monarchy. Petrovsky reforms contributed to the economic and political rise of the state. Enlightenment is much advanced, which has a great influence on the further development of culture. Opened general and special schools. Wide publishers accelerated the development of literature. Innovations are entered into architecture, due to the requirements of the government: to express in it the power and greatness of the Russian Empire. Results of Russia's historical and cultural development in Hush. Very significant. Strengthening links with foreign countries contributed to the penetration of Western influence on Russian culture. Strengthening the power of the Russian state contributed to the formation of the Russian nation. There was a "priority" of culture, which contributed to the emergence of new types of artistic literature, theater, secular music.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | ||||
| Literature | Architecture | Sculpture Ra | Painting | Music | |
| Moscow Baroque- style of Russian architecture n. HUE B., Different with bright decorativeness, symmetry of parts, Threaded on white stone, underlined building aspiration Up Russian Baroque style Russian architecture that has entered into yourself and Western, and Russian traditions | "Russian grammar M.V. Lomonosova Satyric magazines Novikova N.I. Creativity D. Fonvizina (" Lady ") | Bazhenov V.P.: Palace-Park Ensemble in Tsaritsyno Mikhailovsky Castle in St. Petersburg Kazakov MF: Moscow Kremlin Senate Petrovsky Palace (Moscow) Nobor's Assembly - Colon Hall (Moscow) Trezini: Cathedral of the Petro Pavlovsk Fortress of Russia: Palace Square Ensemble Alexandrinsky Theater Rastrelli Jr.: Smolny Monastery Winter Palace Large Palace in Peterhof Catherine Palace in Tsarskoye Sel | B.Rastrelli: Bronze Bust Peter "Empress Anna Joanovna with Arapchonk" Sculpture portraits F. Shubin | Nikitin I. "Peter 1 on the mortal bed" Antropov A.P., Rokotov F.R., Levitsky D.T., Borovikovsky V.L. (portraits of contemporaries) | Kozloskaya O.A. Russian romances Fomin E, and, Opera "Orpheus" and others. |
Questions for self-test:
1. What new spheres appeared in the Russian culture of Hush in.
2.Well contributed to the entry of Russia into the world historical and cultural process.
4. How did Petrov's reforms affect education?
Literature:
Benouua A. Guidebook in the art gallery of the Imperial Hermitage. 2nd ed. - M.: Fine art, 1997.
World History, at 13 tons. M., 1955-1983.
Gallet P.P. World History of Arts. - M.: Contemporanik, 2000.
Grigunina N.G. The history of world artistic culture. - Tver, 1983.
Zenina Mr., Koshman L.V. and others. History of Russian culture for students of universities. - M.: Higher School, 1990.
Zhegalova S. K. Russian People's Painting. - M.: Enlightenment, 1975.
Georgiev TS Russian culture and modernity. Education. Poster. - M.: Yurait,
1999. Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center. 1997.
Culturalology. Ed. Kefeli I. F. - S.-PB.: Specialiterature, 1996.
The history of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A. I. Rostov-on Don: Phoenix, 1996.
Culture of medieval Europe (y. N.E.-Serd. Hope.)
The entire cultural life of the European Society of this period was determined by Christianity. A symbol of faith is accepted on the universal assembly. The basis of the Christian teaching was faith in the resurrection of Christ, on the resurrection of the dead, in the Divine Trinity. By the time of the early Middle Ages, the appearance of heresies. One of the instruments of struggle with them was the Inquisition. A huge role was playing monasticism. Monasteries turned into rich centers, which were both centers of education and culture.
In the 1x centuries. The rise in the field of natural science knowledge is marked. Along with the exact sciences, the occult were widespread: alchemy, astrology, magic. For literature, the heroic epic and knightly novels are characteristic. City culture was a new phenomenon in the cultural life of the Western European society.
The strong role of the church was manifested in architecture, sculpture, painting.
To hp in. The appearance of a new architectural style is gothic. With the development of gothic architecture, sculpture and painting are changing. Everything is more clearly affected by the legacy of antiquity.
HSH-X1U centuries. Direct precursors of the culture of revival.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | |||
| Literature | Architecture | Uniseitets | ||
| Inquisition (from Lat. - wanted list) - a church body designed to fight heresy (religious flow, not recognized by the official church doctrine), with HSH. Activated as the official Supreme Court of Indulgence (from Lat.-Grace) - a grades about the release of sins of Syrinatoriums, workshops in churches and monasteries, in which the manuscripts of scholastics were rewritten (from Greek- School, scientist) - School Science Minnesinger-singers of High Love in Germany Vaganti (from Lat. - Stray) - Stray poets Knight's romance, the epic genre of medieval literature, in the center the image of the knight's hero, his feats of gothic - an architectural style that arose in Western Europe in the HP century, characteristic devil - the aspiration of the building is sweeping, huge windows decorated with stained glass windows "Flaming Gothic" - kind of gothic, in which the buildings decorated with the finest threads on the stone lace morality- the dandy drama in which there was an image of the struggle of kind and evil began behind the human soul | "Saga about Eric Redhead" "Song of Roland" Roman Gottfried Strasboursk "Tristan and Isolde" Ballads about Robin Gude | Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople Cathedral Notre Dame in Paris Cathedrals in Oxford, Winchester (England) Westminster Abbey in London Cathedral in Lübeck (Germany) | First University (Spain, Bologna) Universities in Oxford, Cambridge | |
Questions for self-test:
1. What effect was the church on the culture of the Middle Ages?
2. Tell us about the features of the architecture of medieval Europe?
3. What is the feature of medieval literature?
Literature:
World History at 13 tt - M., 1957. T. Sh.
Gallet P.P. World History of Arts. - M.: Contemporanik, 2000.
Grigunina N.G. History of world art culture. - Tver, 1993.
From the history of the cultural of middle ages and revival. - M., 1972.
Short encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1989.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2-HT. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1996.
Christianity. Encyclopedic Dictionary. - in 2 tt.- M.: Large Russian Encyclopedia, 1993.
Kochansky V.V. The history of culture of Western Europe. M.: IP
Ecoperos, 1998.
Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center. 1997.
The culture of the Renaissance of the X1U-Hu1 centuries.
Early revival of H1U-Hybent.
High revival of huju1 centuries.
Later, the revival of the 40th G. Hu1 V. - Per. Years of HUU in.
At the end of X1U in. - Nach. Hu c. In Europe, namely in Italy, early bourgeois culture began to form, obtaining the name of the Renaissance Culture (Renaissance). The term "revival" indicated the connection of a new culture with antiquity. This epoch was characterized by very significant changes in the mindset of people. Secular motives in European culture are enhanced. Independent from the church are the various spheres of society - art, philosophy, literature, education science. The focus of the rebirth era, there was a person, so their worldview is denoted by the term "humanistic" (from Lat. - Human). Humanists of the Renaissance believed that the possibilities of human knowledge are infinite, because the human mind is like a divine mind, and the person himself is, as it were, the mortal god, the pleasure of the earth being is an indispensable part of the Renaissance culture. The humanistic movement was a pan-European phenomenon, but each country had its own characteristics in the formation of a revival culture.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | |||
| literature | painting | architecture | sculpture | |
| Reformation - DRIVE anti-refortional and anti-catalytic movement in Europe in the first floor. Hu1 c., Putting the beginning of a new variety of Christianity - Protestantism | "Divine Comedy" Dante; "Decameron" Bokcchcho; Sonnet Petrarchs; J. Bruno "About infinite, all-life and Mi-rah"; Creative Vil-Yam Shakespie; Roman Cervantes "Don Quixote" Lope de Vega "Dog on Seine" | Creativity Botticelli Leonardo da Vinci ("Last Supper", "Joconda") Rafael Santi ("Sicstinskaya Madonna") Georgeon ("Yudify", "Sleeping Venus") Creativity A. Duder, D. Velasquez, El Greco | Cathedral of Santa Maria Del Fiore in Florence; Cathedral of Santa Maria della Grazia in Milan; St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome; Palace Vatican | Creativity Michelangelo (statue of David, sculpture "Morning", "Evening", "Day", "Night) |
Questions for self-test:
1. What is the characteristic feature of the culture and art of the Renaissance?
2. Describe the main achievements in the literature of the Renaissance.
3. Who can you call the Titans of Renaissance from artists?
Literature
Gallet P.P. World History of Arts. - M.: Contempor, 2000
From the history of the cultural of middle ages and revival. M., 1972.
The culture of the Renaissance and Reformation. - L., 1981.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 tons. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986.
Kochansky V.V. The history of culture of Western Europe. M.: Ecoperos, 1998.
Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center. 1997.
Culture of the Epoch of Enlightenment (1689-1789)
Education is ideological and social movement in Europe and Africa, related to changes in living conditions under the influence of the decomposition of the feudal and approval of capitalist industrial relations. The conditionally historical framework of the Epoch of Enlightenment is limited to 1689-1789. 1688 - a "glorious revolution" in England, 1789, the French Revolution was performed.
Enlightenment left an indelible mark in science, literature, art, politics. Futures of Enlightenment fought for the establishment of the "Mind Kingdom", the basis of which should be "natural equality", and from here - political freedom and civil equality. Objectives and ideals of enlightenment are the well-being and happiness of people, peace, non-violence, religiousness and Wildard. Confidence in the relics of the human mind, in its limitless opportunities, in the progress of science, creating conditions for economic and social benefits - here is the pathos of the Epoch of Enlightenment. The enlighteners convinced that the enlightenment of the masses of the brought up monarchs would lead to the destruction of the University, the enlighteners took place from different classes. In each country, the enlightenment movement was imprinting national identity. The main literary genre of the Epoch of Enlightenment is a novel. At the end of HUU - Hush. It begins to develop that musical language, which will later speak out of Europe. The visual arts peculiar to the analysis of the subtlest human experiences. The most valuable heritage of Hush in. The basics of aesthetics and art historical as scientific discipline appeared in it.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | ||
| Literature | Painting | Music | |
| Rococo - the leading pressure in the French Art Hush., For which the care of life in the world of fantasies is characterized; Scul-Pathura and Painting Easy, Decorative-Top-Worn By Content | Tragedy I.V. Mouth "Faust" Tractat A.F.Bestuzhev "On the upbringing" Traveling from St. Petersburg to Moscow "A.N. Ogadishva Satyrian magazines N.I.Novikova" Journey Gullyer "J. Swift | Curtains Gainesboro Creativity F.Bush ("Toilet Venus", "Venus with Amur", etc.) Creativity U. Hogard Creativity Rockotov F.S. Levitsky D.G. | Creativity I.S. Bach; Creativity G.F.Gendel; Creativity I.Gaidna; Creativity V.A. Motsarta (50 Symphony, Opera "Don Juan", "Wedding Figaro" "Requiem"); Creativity L.V. Bethoven (32 Sonata, incl. Lunar Sonata, "Ninth Symphony", "Solemn Mass") |
Questions for self-test:
1. What is the historical condition of the era of the Enlightenment?
2. What was the originality of Russian enlightenment?
3. What was the historical purpose of the Epoch of Enlightenment?
Literature
Ilina T.V. History of Arts. Western European art. - M.: Higher School, 1993.
Gallet P.P. World History of Arts. - M.: Higher School, 2000.
Encyclopedic dictionary of the young artist. - M.: Pedagogy, 1983.
Kochansky V.V. The history of culture of Western Europe. M.: IP Ecoperpeat, 1998
Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center, 1997.
European Culture X1x Century
The industrial revolution that covered European countries was an important stage in approving the capitalist production method and was closely related to the development of science. X1x in. - This is the flourishing of classic natural science. The great shifts that took place in the development of science and technology have enormous influence on the development of literature and art. The era of the formation of capitalism is the new era in the development of European artistic culture. It was in this era who formed classicism, romanticism, realism, impressionism.
| Terms and concepts | Monuments of Culture | ||||
| Literature | painting | sculpture | architecture | music | |
| Classicism (from lat.-art-cyn) was typical with bourgeois enlightened. This style is based on the ideas of rational-lizma; It is characteristic of the expression of elevated ideals. However, it is inherent in the features of utopism, distraction | Tragedy Goethe "Faust" tragedy Schiller "Don Carlos", "Maria Stewart" | J.L.David "Cryatva Horatiyev", "Death of Marat"; The etchings "Kaprichchos F.Goya; F.A. Druni" Death Camillas, Sisters Horace " | A. Kanova "Amur and Psyche"; Monument to Minin and Pozhane-mu I.P. Martos; Klodt PK "Horse tamers" at Anichkovo Bridge, etc. | The building of the Senate in the Kremlin M.F. Quea Qova; Mi-Haylovsky Palace (Russian Museum "in St. Pe-Terburg K. Srisia; Anshamble in Pavlovs-ke and Peterhof A.N. Resonichina | |
| Romanticism (from Franz.-Roman) Ideano-like-Vain Director in Europess-Culture, which established under the influence of the Veli-Koi French Revolution. In the work of his representatives, there was a reflection of the disappointment of capitalist-whom a reality. Increased interest in the ongoing past, the traditions of folklore | Ballads V.A.Dukovsky "Svetlana" Lyudmila | "Craislerian butterflies", "Karna-Val" R. Shuman; "Troyan-Tsy", River G. Berlioz; poems, Rapsody F. List; Opera "Ruslan and Lyudmila M.I. Glinka; Opera" Mermaid " Stone Guest "A.S.Dargomyzhsky | |||
| Realism (from lat. Effectiveness) Naprain in the LATA-waters and artistic, the strife, to give the true reflection of the reality with specific means inherent in one or another kind of creativity. | "Human coma diya" O. Ba-Flazak; "Cathedral of the Paris's Mother of God" Miscellaneous "V.Gu-th;" Mr. Bovari "" Education of the Sovereigns "of Flobrera;" Large expectations "Ch.Dikkens" Vanity Fair "U.Tejkay" Saga about Forsyites "D. Golzore-Si; "Man-vector Nevi-Dimka", "Time Machine", "War Mi-Kazh" by G. Iel-lsa; "Hunger" Mystery of G. Gamsun Russian literature and A.S. Pushkin, M.Yu. Lermontova, N.V.Gogolal. N. Tolstoy, F.M.Dostoevsky, I.S.Turgenev, M.E. Saltykova-Shchedrina, A.P.hehkhova | Creativity J. Mill, I.N. Kramsky | Operas: M.P.Morusorsky "Boris Godunov"; A.P. Borodina "Prince Igor"; N.A. Rimsky-Correctic "Snow Maiden", "Tsarist Bride"; J. Verdi "Sicilian Evening-Rnium", "Ai-yes", "Don Carlos" Dr.; J. Bi-Ze " Men "," Premature Pearls; Ballets: P.I. Tchaikovsky "Swan Lake" "Sleeping Beauty" Nutchank-Chik; A.K.Lazzunova "Paradise-Monda" | ||
| Naturalism (from Lat. - Nature) Direction in Ev-Rop. and amer. Li-Teatura Poshesky Treat X1x in. His main representatives presented to the objective reproduction of reality and Chernya, which caused it at a generic and medium, understood as direct household and material oc-rugs, but not excluding socio-historical factors. | Emil Zol (20 languid series of novels) | ||||
| Symbolism direction in the art of the end of the X1X NCH. The XX B, focused on the expression of the posterior symbol, intuitively comprehended supervocations and ideas, random feelings and visions. | Creative-in K. Bal-Monta, D. Mezh-Kovsky, F. Sologuba, A.Be-Lov, V. Brusova A.Blok | ||||
| Impression-onism (from Fran Impression) Direction in the art of the aud. Third x1h - Nach. XX centuries And it applies to the beauty of everyday reality, seeks the life of the image. The works of I. are distinguished by the sensitive edge of the world, for them it is characteristic of grabbing in the unique seen. | Creativity K. Mone, O. Roshar, E.Dega, K. Pissaro, B.Morizo | Iron Tower A.Aefel (Paris) | |||
| Postmigres-Zionism is the general name of the currents in Visual Pisi Konch X1x Nach. XX centuries WHO NOCKSHIKS IN FRIENDS AS A REACTION TO IMPRESSO-NAM. Having perceived the purity of the color of P. Anti-Postees, the search for a regular basis for the patrimony and the color of the color of the permanent start to the philosophical and symbolic aspects. | Creativity Paul Cesanna, Paul Gajen, V.Voggog |
Questions for self-test:
1. Call and characterize the main artistic styles of x1x century.
2. List the Russian representatives of various styles in the art of x1x century.
3. In which direction I have been reflected by impressionism?
Literature:
Ilina T.V. History of Arts. Western European art. - M.: Higher School, 1993.
Worldwide story at 13 tt. -M.: 1953-1985.
Popular art encyclopedia. In 2 tons - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1986
Grigunina N.G. The history of world artistic culture. - Tver, 1993.
Radugin A.A. Culturalology. M.: Center, 1997.
Culturalology. Ed. Kefhelia I.F. - S.-PB.: Specialty, 1996.
The history of world culture. Ed. Chernokozova A.I. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 1996.
Paleolithic (40 thousand years before N. E.-13 thousand years BC. Er), History of Ancient Japan
In the era of Paleolithic, the land covered glaciers, and the sea level was 100 meters below the current one. Japan has not yet been an archipelago, but combined with the Istrais with Eurasia.
The Japanese Sea was in those times with a wide lowline. Although the glaciers did not reach East Asia, however, they had a significant impact on the climate of those places. Japan was located in the Asian steppe ecosone, the flora of which consisted mainly of forest-steppe herbs. From the fauna it is worth noting mammoths, elephants Nauman, the biggest deer and other animals migrating on this land from Siberia.
For the first time, people arrived at the Japanese Islands at the beginning of the Japanese Paleolithic, which
lasted from 40 millennia BC. e., 12 millennium BC. People who arrived on the cages in ancient Japan, mined food with hunting and gathering, created the first coarse tools of labor from stone. This time is referred to as a period of addiction culture, because people could not make products from ceramics.
Dzeremon period (13 thousand years BC. E. - 3 century BC. Er), History of Ancient Japan
Twelve thousand years ago ended the glacial period, the glaciers melted and the water level increased all over the world. Thanks to the melting of glaciers and the Japanese archipelago was formed. Due to the rapid warming and changes in the direction of oceanic currents in the Japanese steppes, dense forests appeared. At the same time, the resettlement of people from Southeast Asia to the Japanese archipelago began. These immigrants understood well in marine navigation and shipbuilding. Apparently, their canoe-like lobby boats reached the Japanese coast due to the warm sea currents of Kurosio. The new group of people quickly blended with the descendants of the paleopopulation of the Japanese islands.
Due to the warming of climate, the plant and animal world of Japan changed radically. The north-east of the archipelago was covered with oak and coniferous thickets, and the southwest - beech and subtropical forests. In these forests, huge boars, deers, pheasants, wild ducks lived. In the waters of the shores of Japan, the Red Pagra, Bonites, sea ships were present. In the waters of Hokkaido and the Toshok region, there were plenty of salmon and trout. Thanks to the natural abundance of residents of the Japanese archipelago, developed agriculture and cattle breeding was not required, they preferred to extract food with hunting and gathering.
In the tenth millennium BC. Ancient Japanese among the first in the world learned to produce ceramic products. Among these products, deep-bottomed jugs prevailed, in which the products were stored, fried and cooked food. A distinctive feature of this dish was the "cord ornament", Japanese Jemon. A similar pattern was attended by Japanese jugs until the middle of the 2nd century BC. er, because of which it is customary to call the Japanese culture of the neolithic period "Dzemon culture", and the time of its prevalence in the Japanese-period of the Dzemo.
In the era of Neolith, the ancient Japanese began to lead a settling lifestyle, formed small villages for 20-30 people on low hillocks. The main housing was semi-ray and dugouts. Near the settlement there were garbage mounds, which also served for the burial of the dead. From the villages of the Neolithic period, the parking of Sanneai Maruyama, located in the aomori prefecture, dated to the fifth century BC. e. and including the remains of a large settlement in which 100-200 people lived. The sexual and age distribution of labor was common. Along with hunting and collecting, the ancient population of the Japanese archipelago grown legumes, chestnuts, buckwheat, and also engaged in cultivating oysters. In the area of \u200b\u200b4 - 3 century BC. e. The Japanese trained primitive sudidal rice trees. Among religious beliefs, animism were distributed (faith in animation of nature) and totemism. In addition, the Japanese of the Dzevel period made clay female figurines of the dog and revered the power of the Earth, the symbols of birth and life.
Reconstruction of the House of Parking Sannai Maruyama
The period of Yoya (3 century BC. E.-3 century AD), History of Ancient Japan
Despite the fact that the Japanese learned to grow rice still during the period of Zemon, large-scale bay riflement with irrigation has spread to the archipelago in 1 millennia to our era. For the first time, the innovations were adopted in the north of Kyushu Islands, from where the ricestry spread to other areas of Ancient Japan. After the spread of the filler rifling, the Japanese who lived on elevations moved on lowlands closer to the valleys of rivers. The first Moore communities were formed, whose members were covered and maintained the fuel rice fields. New workers of labor were created, such as a stone knife sickle, and buildings for rice storage - repository on backups. Celebrations, rituals and prayers for a rich harvest were held in the communities. At this time, a calendar was created.
Along with the culture of rice growing from the continent in Japan, the culture of metal smelting - copper, iron and bronze came. Up to 1 century BC e. The Japanese imported ready-made goods from metal, but then created their metallurgical production. The main products from bronze were swords, halbards and spears, bells Dotaki (used in agricultural rituals) and mirrors. After the propagation of iron in the 2nd century n. e. Bronze weapons turned into a cult.
At the beginning of the first millennium BC. e. The Japanese learned to produce products from the ceramics of a new style, which was similar to the continental. The peculiarity of these products was the reddish color, the lack of an ornament and a variety of types of dishes. Apparently, progress in the manufacture of ceramics was associated with the expansion of rice production. The ceramic tableware of the new style was first found in the settlement of Yoyu, whose name was named a new ceramic culture. The prevalence of this culture in the Japanese archipelago from 1 millennium BC. e. 3 century N. e. Wears the name "Yoy" period.
Thanks to the spread of rice production, the population of the population of Japan's era of Yoyu has increased. This growth contributed to the creation of close connections between communities, but often provoked clashes, especially for control over natural resources. Starting from the 2nd century BC. e. Many villages were surrounded by Rips and wooden frequencies. The population of the settlement was led by leaders who focused religious and military power in their hands. The settlements were often united and formed the first proto-state unions. The most fortified settlement of the Epoch of Yayoi was Parking Yosinogari, located in the Saga Prefecture, testifying to the high level of associations of the ancient Japanese.
Reconstruction of Parking Yosinokari
Genre of Article - History of Japan
At the turn of 4 - 3 thousand humanity in the steps in a new "historical" stage. "Prehistory" ended with the appearance of the first foci of civilization in some regions. With the growth of the first cities, with the advent of crafts and trade, with the invention of writing, the "historical" stage of human development began with the emergence of statehood institutions.
2 previous questions.
The era of the appearance on earth of early civilizations is called the Bronze Age (Bronze Age), since the most important feature of this period was the spread of guns from bronze. The appearance of bronze, metallurgy.
Products from gold and silver (2 thousand BC). Used as material for decorations. Pretty developed gold metallurgy (Egypt, Crete) These IU were not used to make guns and arms.
The emergence of metallurgy.
"Prehistoric" period - the Stone Age ended with the spread of metallurgy, with the transformation of bronze into the main material for the manufacture of labor guns (4-3 thousand BC), when the manufacture of guns from copper turned into a craft.
The first course, mastered by mankind (6-4 thousand years BC) (but did not affect the history of mankind, as it was rare artifacts).
Highlight halkolite (Eneith)- Copper-free century (the main cf is a stone, but there are also copper guns there, where the rich deposits of copper: Anatoly (Turkey, Iraq), Malaya Asia, Caucasus, Sev. Black Sea, Bulgaria, Iran, Valley Inde, Egypt, South East Europe). But for their processing, we need technical devices: the furnaces with the pace will appear. More than 1000 gr. (RBE 3-4 thousand), bronze appears (copper alloy with other IT (tin, aluminum). New workers of labor appeared, weapons - new produces. Labor (more crop, surplus products, specialization arises (the craft is separated from farming), There are people who are professionally catch. State. Children ..: Warriors, officials, bureaucrats. - First civilizations . Appear in the valleys of great rivers, almost on one geogr. Belt. The era of "river civilizations", but there is also on. Crete, and in Mynae (Crito-Miktenskaya) (Milnaya) - Aegean (and Dr. O-Wah Aegean Sea). Cities appear. Bronze products are more durable than copper - the rapid spread of bronze in the regions adjacent to the Mediterranean basin, as well as in India and China.
In America, copper products have led 2-1-thousand to n. e. Started in South America then in Central. Bronze only in some nations of South America. There was no iron in Dookolumbovskaya America!
Ceramics.
Products from the burned clay appeared essentially in the neolithic era, but until the start of the bronze age, ceramics were formed manually. Pottery circle - 3 years. BC. e. Manufactured dishes, technical appointments (weights for networks, straight tricks for weaving machines). 3-2 thousand BC e. The art of ceramics has reached a high level. The emergence of metallurgical furnaces contributed to the emergence of new technologies in ceramic production: glaze, glass.
In k. 2nd thousand to n. e. Ancient. River civilizations simultaneously come into decay. To change the more returned, but a stronger young civilization.
14. Bronze Collapse: The drop in bronze civilizations at the turn of 2-1 thousand to n. e.
At the end of 2-th. 1 thousand BC e. Many "Bronze Civilizations of Palley under Natius more young peoples living in military democracy (Engels, in a pre-state state.
Egypt / "Peoples of the Sea" (Phoenicians, Protogrection
China / Zhou (Civilizations Change
Creoto-Miktenskaya / Darisians - "Dark times" (the primitive ethnic of dare C. and very quickly raised its new young Ts. - Classical Greece.
It fell into decay and never returned to the previous level of the Hittite civilization.
Troy was destroyed.
I came to the launch of the Indian C. (then several states appeared that formed the empire
Mohengeo -Daro turned into a "dead hill.
This sharp break in the history of the ancient C. is called the Bronze Age catastrophe (Brobze Age COLLAPSE
Bronze Age Collapse.
1) Many old cities were destroyed: Troy, Mohenjo Daro, Knossos, Mycenae.
2) Foreign trade routes
3) population drop
4) literacy reduction, disappearance of certain types of writing (Mycenaean, Luvian.
Causes of Collapse:
1) physical.
A) tectonic (geological (earth earth, volcanoes, raising / lowering sushi
B) metterological (dry climate, drought, which worsened social-efficiency. The situation led to wars and migrations. At the same time, to the north of Pyrineyev and the Alps in the district of Atlantic storms in the middle of winter, a woeful climate was established.
2) Social Causes
New peoples are more mobile, more cohesive
- "Military Democracy
They were in a strictly pre-state era (all equal among themselves, military actions together were together, there was no one that inhibits the development of thought, democracy. In bronze C. The palace-temple complexes, IS-in masters kept secret).
The arrival of the "dark centuries" was reflected in the cultural level of those regions where it is essential. Bronze C. For example, the painting of the Palace of Palace was replaced by the geometrichki painting - decreased style. Cultural regression.
In general, it is the democratization of the foundations of social. Life has become the main factor in the formation of classic. C. Middle 2 - Nach of the 1st thousand to n. e.
As a result, the collapse on the change of ancient c. New came, in the future reached a high level of development.
Dark century - A short period between the Bronze and Iron Institute, during which the highly developed bronze C. antiquities come into decline under the onslaught of other peoples, younger.
15. Material and spiritual culture of the Iron Age.
1000. BC e. In some regions of Africa, the Iron Age begins ". Iron ore began to extract in k. 2nd thousand to n. e. The first products made of iron appeared on Earth for another 5-4 thousand BC. e., however, for 2-CHTY. Leave. Extremely rarity. Zelaelative metallurgy causes a general increase in yield. The population is growing, the city rises, trade comes to life.
The distribution of iron guns leads not only to the rise of the profitability of rural labor, but also to increase in the number of victims of military clashes. In the salvation of mankind in great religious-ethical teachings are published.The "axial time" begins (the epoch, dating from 800-200s. BC, when philosophical and religious teachings were formulated (which, as wheels on the axis, is based on modern culture) and the type of mentality, which is peculiar to the modern person. In This time, a rational, philosophical, formed by the type of person who exists, has come to change the mythological worldview, which exists. In his opinion, all the teachings of axial time (which in a modified form still exist) differ in rationalism and the striving of a person to rethink the norms that existed before , customs and traditions.) (K. Yaspers).
The spiritual culture of the Iron Age:
1) Overcoming syncretism. The emergence of science, religion, art is separated from the craft
2) 2) arise world religions (6 in. BC. E. - Buddhism, 1 century. N. E. - Christianity, 7th century (622) - Islam).
3) -Rudi iron century - warriors, tough people of their time
4) - Alphabetical letter (phonetic record is more convenient for intersatural communication, it is easier to record sounds)
5) Convenient material for writing (Papyrus, Parchment) has been created
6) the meaning of all religions is the salvation of mankind.
Iron Age Culture:
1) Culture of the sambit kurgans, or west Baltine Kurgans (located in the territory of the Kaliningrad region, Western Lithuania, East Poland, Western Belarus.) (Died cremated, were placed in ceramic urns and buried in bulk mounds.)
2) Dyakovsky culture (existing in VII BC. e. - V centuries in the territory of Moscow, Tver, Vologda, Vladimir, Yaroslavl and Smolensk regions.)
3) Culture of stroken ceramics ((VII century BC. E. - V century n. Er), located on the territory of East Lithuania, Southeast Latvia, as well as North-West and Central Belarus. ) (Beliefs were associated with the deification of the forces of nature, the cult of the sun and the fire. Probably quite widespread have a bear cult.
The burial monuments are unknown. The dishes are mainly represented by stucco pots, three-sabotage tips of arrows that were used by the Gunno population.)
16. Social consequences of technological innovations of the 1st thousand to n. e.
The appearance of iron is the beginning of the manufacture of iron weapons and instruments of labor. Relumentary metallurgy causes a general increase in yield. Rights population comes to life.
The spread of iron tools leads not only to the rise in agricultural work, but also to an increase in the number of victims of military clashes. Great religious-ethical teachings arise to the salvation of mankind. (Christianity - the 2nd floor. 1st century; Islam - 622, Buddhism - 6-5 centuries. BC. E)
Read more in the methods \u003d)
17. Great antiquity empires.
EGYPT. 3000-30 years before the new era
This empire existed for three millennia - longer than any other. The state arose according to the latest data, more than 3,000 years before the new era, and when the union of the Upper and Lower Egypt occurred (2686-2181), the so-called ancient kingdom was formed. The whole life of the country was associated with the Nile River, with its fertile valley and Delta from the Mediterranean Sea. Rules Egypt Pharaoh (the word means the warehouse of food), the governors and officials were sitting on the ground, and in general, social life in the country was sufficiently developed (see "Science and Life" No. 1, 1997 - "Stone Stone Stone" - and No. 5, 1997 - "Ancient Egypt. Pyramid of power"). Officers, scribes, land surveyors and local priests were counted for the elite of society. Pharaoh was considered a living deity, and all the most important sacrifices performed himself.
Egyptians fanatically believed in the afterlife, it was devoted to the objects of culture and majestic buildings - pyramids and temples. The walls of funeral cameras made by hieroglyphs told about the life of an ancient state more than other archaeological finds.
The history of Egypt disintegrates for two periods. The first - from the ground and up to 332 to the new era, when Alexander Macedon won the country. And the second period is the reign of the Ptolemyev dynasty - the descendants of one of the commander of Alexander Macedonsky. In 30, before the new era, Egypt was conquered by a more young and powerful empire - Roman.
GREECE. 700-146 years before the new era
The southern part of the Balkan Peninsula people settled tens of thousands of years ago. But from the VII century to the new era, we can talk about Greece as a large, homogeneous cultural relationship, although with the reservations: the country was the Union of Cities-states united during the time of the external threat, as, for example, to reflect the Persian aggression.
Culture, religion and above all the language was the framework in which the history of this country proceeded. In 510, to the new era, most cities were freed from the merchanties of the kings. In Athens, she soon began to rule democracy, but only citizens men had the right to vote.
The state, culture and science of Greece became a model and an inexhaustible source of wisdom for almost all later states of Europe. Already greek scientists wondered about life and about the universe. It was in Greece that the foundations of such sciences were laid as medicine, mathematics, astronomy and philosophy. Greek culture ceased to development when the country was captured by the Romans. The decisive battle occurred in 146 to the new era at the city of Corinth, when the troops of the Greek Ahasey Union were broken.
PERSIA. 600-331 years before the new era
In the VII century, the nomadic tribes of the Iranian Highlands raised the uprising against Assyrian dominion. The winners founded the state a mussel, which, together with Babylonia and other neighboring countries, turned into a global power. By the end of the 6th century, she, headed by Kirome II, and then his successors belonged to the Ahemenide dynasty continued to conquer. In the West of the Earth, the Empire went to the Aegean Sea, in the east, her border was held along the Indian River, in the south, in Africa, ownership reached the first thresholds of the Nile. (Most of Greece occupied during the Greek Persian War of the Persian King Cerks in 480 to the new era.)
The monarch was magical than the "king of the kings", he stood at the head of the army and was a supreme judge. Ownerships were divided into 20 satrapy, where the governor of the king rules his name. The subjects spoke in four languages: ancient Persian, Babylonian, Elam and Aramaic.
In 331, before the new era, Alexander Macedonsky broke the hordes of Darius II - the last of the Ahemenide dynasty. This ended the story of this great empire.
INDIA. 322-185 years before the new era
Traditions dedicated to the history of India and its rulers are very fragmentary. Several information refer to the time when the founder of the Buddha's religious teaching (566-486 BC), the first real person in the history of India.
In the first half of the first one millennium, many small states arose in the northeastern part of India. One of them - Magada - was raised due to the successful conciliatory wars. The king of Ashka, who belonged to the Maury Dynasty, was so expanded the possessions that they had already occupied almost all of the current India, Pakistan and part of Afghanistan. The king was obeyed by administrative governance officials and a strong army. At first, Ashoka walked a cruel commander, but, becoming a follower of the Buddha, preached peace, love and tolerance and received the nickname "facing". This king built hospitals, fought with cutting out forests, and in relation to his people he conducted a soft policy. The decrees that came up to us, carved on the rocks, columns, are ancient, precisely dated epigraphic monuments of India, telling about the management of the state, social relations, religion and culture.
Even before his elevation of Ashok, the population divided into four castes. The first two were privileged - priests and warriors. The invasion of Bactrian Greeks and internal discord in the country led the Empire to decay.
CHINA. 221-210 years before the new era
In the period called in the history of China Zhanju, the long-term struggle, which many small kingdoms led, brought victory to the kingdom of Qin. It combined the conquered lands and in 221 to the new era formed the first Chinese empire led by Qin Shi-Huangi. The emperor conducted reforms that strengthened the young state. The country was divided into district, military garrisons were established to maintain order and calm, the construction of a network of roads and canals was carried out, and the same education was introduced for officials, and in the whole kingdom there was a single monetary system. The monarch approved the order in which people had to work where the interests and needs of the state were required. Even such a curious law was introduced: all the carts should have an equal distance between the wheels so that they move along the same rinse. In the same reign, the Great Wall was created: it combined the individual sections of defensive structures previously built by the Northern Kingdoms.
In 210, Qing Shi-Huangi died. But subsequent dynasties left intact foundations for the construction of the empire, laid out by its founder. In any case, the last dynasty of the emperors of China ceased to exist at the beginning of our century, and the borders of the state are preserved almost unchanged to this day.
Rome. 509 year before the new era - 330 new era
In 509, before the new era, the Roman was expelled from Rome of the Etruscan king Tarquinia proud. Rome became a republic. By 264, to the new era of her troops mastered the entire Appenin Peninsula. After that, expansion began in all directions of light, and by 117 the new era, the state extended its borders from the West to the East - from the Atlantic Ocean to the Caspian Sea, and from the south to the north - from the thresholds of the Nile and the coast of all North Africa to borders with Scotland and By the bottom flow of the Danube.
The 500 years of Rome managed annually elected two consuls and the Senate, which made state property and finances, foreign policy, military affairs and religion.
In 30, before the new era, Rome becomes an empire led by Caesar, and in the merits - a monarch. The first Caesar was August. A large and well-trained army participated in the construction of a huge network of roads, their overall length - more than 80,000 kilometers. Lovely roads made an army very mobile and allowed to quickly reach the most remote corners of the Empire. Help the country from breakdown helped and appointed Rome in the province of Proconsula - the governors and devotees Caesar officials. This was also facilitated by the settlements of soldiers who served the service located in the conquered lands.
The Roman state, in contrast to many other giants of the past, fully responded to the concept of "empire". It also became a model for future contenders for world domination. European countries inherited a lot from the culture of Rome as well as the principles of building parliaments and political parties.
The uprising of the peasants, slaves and city plebs, all the enhancing head of the German and other barbaric tribes from the north forced the emperor Konstantin I to transfer the capital of the state to the city of Byzantine, later called Constantinople. This happened in 330 new era. After Constantine, the Roman Empire was actually divided into two - Western and East, which were ruled by two emperors.
BYZANTIUM. 330-1453 new era
There was a vivantium from the eastern residues of the Roman Empire. Constantinople became the capital, founded by Emperor Konstantin I in 324-330 at the site of the colony of Byzantium (the name of the state is coming from here). From this point on, the separation of Byzantium in the depths of the Roman Empire began. A great role in the life of this state was the Christian religion, which became the ideological foundation of the empire and the stronghold of Orthodoxy.
Byzantium existed for more than a thousand years. She reached his political and military power during the reign of Emperor Justinian I, in the VI century a new era. It was then, having a strong army, Byzantium won Western and southern lands of the former Roman Empire. But within these limits, the empire existed for long. In 1204, Konstantinople, who had never risen so longer and did not rise, and in 1453, the Ottoman Turks were seized in 1453.
Arab Khalifat. 600-1258 New Era
The preaching of the Prophet Mohammed marked the beginning of a religious and political movement in Western Arabia. The named "Islam", it contributed to the creation of a centralized state in Arabia. However, soon as a result of successful conquests, the extensive Muslim Empire was born - calipheat. The Arab world left indelible traces in the history of mankind, in literature, mathematics and astronomy.
From the beginning of the first century, the caliphate gradually begins to fall apart - the weakness of economic relations, the vastness of the areas of the territories and traditions subordinate to the age of the territories that had their culture and traditions did not contribute to unity. In 1258, Mongols won Baghdad, and Khalifat collapsed into several Arab states.
18. The belt of classical C. antiquity (1 thousand n. E. - Start 1 thousand n. e.)
Classic C. Around only in 1st thousand to n. e.
Long belt classic. C. - between 20 o and 50 o p. Sh. In eastern hemisphere and 30 o.Sh. in America. In classic. C. lived about 4/5 of the population of the planet between all classical C. Afro-Education existed sustainable bonds. Never interrupted connections forever. America remained in isolation (only geographical "insulation"). The nature itself of human C. causes peoples and states to strive for integration
Classic - exemplary. Civilizations that have reached their development is good. These C. is a sample for modernity. All nations are classic heirs. C.
Concentrate. Large population. Earth.
In 500 BC e. Poor. Planets about 120 million people. By the 1st G. N. E. OK. 250 million people of them are 60 million in Y. Asia, 60 million in the Roman Empire, 60 million in India and the Parthian kingdom, from 2-3 million in North. Africa, as much in America.
The concentration of the population led to "demographic pressure" in the ancient ranges of C. and the beginning of new mass migrations included in the history entitled "The Great Migration of Peoples" (350 -600) (there is no clear MIGR. Processes, but mainly with north to south).
Great Greek. Colonization (7 V. BC. E.)
The most studied transition from the dark centuries to the rapidation of classic. Civilization on the example of the "Greek Miracle" (6- part of the 4th V.Do N. E.) - the development of Greek policies. 4 in. BC e. - Polis-building flourishing. In 6 c. BC e. led. Raising Greek C. The main reason is the polis system (built cities, all citizens have equal rights, there were no in-tan of officials, all citizens of the policy carried military. Meetness). Classical polis ethics tried to keep it for a longer period. Change. Craft, trade - not welcome. They were engaged in these came and they did not possess the rights that citizens of the policy. They are the reason for the decomposition of the polis ethics - the ethics of cosmopolitanism (not important, citizens of which state, the main thing - to track their interests.)
The reasonsraise. Greek. C.:
1) polis
2) Great Greek. Colonization and its consequences (beautiful naval, swam and adopted the experiences of others. Peoples, Mobility Habit)
3) the presence of an alphabet and papyrus (alphabetical letter of land. In India, the phyrics. An alphabetical letter. Greeks used papyrus for writing - the development of thought).
4) Agonic Spirit ("Agon" - Competition). Only those nations seek success who have a developed competitor. Spirit. Greeks came up with sports. Transferred to the competition. Spirit in the scope of MS VA and science. Choir, is-in drama - manifested. Agonal Spirit.
Then Greece turned into a weaker agglomeration, which is constantly threatened to capture them.
The era of empires occurs (in Ser. 1st thousand to n. E.) - Large state. Education, in whose territory a large number of collapsed peoples lived. Empire Al. Macedonian, Persian, Parfyan, Kushanskaya, Roman, Byzantine, Maurev, Han, Maya
(Economy. Miracle - Restoration of the economy. Example-Germany is faster than the economy of the countries will win. And GDR).
Classic empires.
Persian
Macedonian
Parfianskaya
Kushanskaya
Roman
Byzantine
Maurev (India)
Maya (3 V. BC er. Reached the level of classic. C.)
