History and geography of Saudi Arabia, the specifics of the country. Saudi Arabia: information, information, general characteristics. Saudi Arabia: form of government Chief in Saudi Arabia

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SAUDI ARABIA, The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (arab. Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya as-Saudiya), a state on the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia. In the north it borders on Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; in the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf and borders on Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, in the southeast it borders on Oman, in the south on Yemen, in the west it is washed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The total length of the borders is 4431 km. Area - 2149.7 thousand square meters. km (data are approximate, since the boundaries in the south and southeast are not clearly established). In 1975 and 1981, agreements were signed between Saudi Arabia and Iraq on the division of a small neutral zone on the border of the two states, which was carried out in 1987. Another agreement was signed with Qatar on demarcation of the border until 1998. In 1996, the neutral zone was divided into border with Kuwait (5570 sq. km), but both countries continue to share oil and other natural resources in the area. Border issues with Yemen have not yet been resolved; nomadic groups in the border regions with Yemen are resisting the demarcation of the border. Negotiations are ongoing between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the issue of a maritime border with Iran. The status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been finally established (details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements have not been made public). Population - 24,293 thousand people, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners (2003). The capital is Riyadh (3627 thousand). Administratively, it is divided into 13 provinces (103 districts).

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Saudi Arabia occupies almost 80% of the territory of the Arabian Peninsula and several coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. According to the structure of the surface, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (height from 300–600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), slightly dissected by dry riverbeds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, the Hijaz mountains stretch ( Arab."barrier") and Asir ( Arab."difficult") with a height of 2500-3000 m (with the highest point of the city of An-Nabi-Shuaib, 3353 m), passing into the coastal lowland of Tihama (width from 5 to 70 km). In the mountains of Asir, the relief varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes through the Hijaz mountains; communication between the hinterland of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, the rocky desert of El Hamad stretches. The largest sandy deserts are located in the northern and central part of the country: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dehna), known for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali ( Arab.“empty quarter”) with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Undefined borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, incl. Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand square meters. km . Along the coast of the Persian Gulf stretches in places swampy or saline lowland El-Khasa (up to 150 km wide). Seashores are predominantly low, sandy, and slightly indented.

Climate.

In the north - subtropical, in the south - tropical, sharply continental, dry. Summer is very hot, winter is warm. The average July temperature in Riyadh ranges from 26°C to 42°C, in January - from 8°C to 21°C, the absolute maximum is 48°C, in the south of the country up to 54°C. and snow. The average annual rainfall is about 70–100 mm (in the central regions, maximum in spring, in the north - in winter, in the south - in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm in year. In the desert of Rub al-Khali and some other areas, in some years it does not rain at all. Deserts are characterized by seasonal winds. Hot and dry southerly winds samum and khamsin in spring and early summer often cause sandstorms, winter north wind shemal brings cooling.

Water resources.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia does not have permanent rivers or water sources, temporary streams are formed only after intense rains. They are especially abundant in the east, in El-Khas, where there are many springs that irrigate oases. Groundwater is often located close to the surface and under the wadis. The problem of water supply is carried out through the development of enterprises for the desalination of sea water, the creation of deep wells and artesian wells.

Soils.

Primitive desert soils predominate; in the north of the country, subtropical gray soils are developed, in the low-lying eastern regions of Al-Khasa - solonchaks and meadow solonchak soils. Although the government is implementing a greening program, forests and woodlands cover less than 1% of the country's area. Arable land (2%) is mainly located in fertile oases north of Rub al-Khali. A significant area (56%) is occupied by land suitable for pasture animal husbandry (as of 1993).

Natural resources.

The country has huge reserves of oil and natural gas. Proved reserves of crude oil reach 261.7 billion barrels, or 35.6 billion tons (26% of all world reserves), natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. In total there are about 77 oil and gas fields. The main oil-bearing region is located in the east of the country, in Al-Has. The reserves of the world's largest oil field Ghawar are estimated at 70 billion barrels of oil. Other large fields are Safaniya (proved reserves - 19 billion barrels of oil), Abqaiq, Qatif. There are also reserves of iron ores, chromium, copper, lead, zinc, and gold.

Vegetable world.

predominantly desert and semi-desert. White saxaul, camel thorn grow in places on the sands, lichens grow on hamads, wormwood, astragalus grow on lava fields, solitary poplars, acacias grow along the wadi channels, and tamarisk in more saline places; along the coasts and solonchaks - halophytic shrubs. A significant part of the sandy and rocky deserts are almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and in wet years, the role of ephemera in the composition of vegetation increases. In the Asir Mountains there are savannah areas where acacias, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases there are groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, cereals and horticultural crops.

Animal world

quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild donkey, onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, ground squirrels, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Among the birds - eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, sandgrouse, quail, doves. Coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2,000 species of corals in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially valued). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government organized national park Asir, where almost extinct species of wild animals such as the oryx (oryx) and the Nubian ibex are preserved.

POPULATION

Demography.

In 2003, 24,293 thousand people lived in Saudi Arabia, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners. Since the first census, conducted in 1974, the population has tripled. In 1990-1996, the average annual population growth was 3.4%, in 2000-2003 - 3.27%. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2 per 1,000 people, and the death rate was 5.79. Life expectancy is 68 years. In terms of age, more than half of the country's population is under 20 years old. Women make up 45% of the population. According to UN forecasts, by 2025 the population should increase to 39,965 thousand people.

The composition of the population.

The vast majority of the population of Saudi Arabia are Arabs (Saudi Arabs - 74.2%, Bedouins - 3.9%, Arabs of the Persian Gulf - 3%), most of whom have retained the tribal organization. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Avazim, Avamir, Ajman, Ataiba, Bali, Beit Yamani, Beni Atiya, Beni Murra, Beni Sakhr, Beni Yas, Wahiba, Dawasir, Dakhm, Janaba, Dzhuhaina, Qahtan, Manasir, manahil, muahib, mutair, subey, suleiba, shararat, harb, huveita, khuteim, etc. The suleiba tribe inhabiting the northern regions is considered to be of non-Arab origin and consists, according to some sources, of the descendants of the crusaders who were captured and enslaved. In total, there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country.

In addition to ethnic Arabs, Saudi Arabs of mixed ethnic origin live in the country, having Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Indian, African roots. As a rule, these are the descendants of pilgrims who settled in the Hejaz region, or Africans who were imported into Arabia as slaves (before the abolition of slavery in 1962, there were up to 750,000 slaves in the country). The latter live mainly in the coastal regions of Tihame and Al-Hasa, as well as in oases.

Foreign workers make up approx. 22% of the population and consist of non-Saudi Arabs, people from African and Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines), as well as a small number of Europeans and Americans. Arabs of foreign origin live in the cities, in the oil fields and in the areas bordering Yemen. Representatives of all other peoples are concentrated in large cities and in the oil fields, where they form, as a rule, more than half of the total population.

Work force.

The economically active population is 7 million people, of which 12% are employed in agriculture, 25% in industry, and 63% in the service sector. The number of people employed in industry and the service sector has been steadily increasing in recent years. 35% of those employed in the economy are foreign workers (1999); Initially, they were dominated by Arabs from neighboring countries, over time they were replaced by immigrants from South and Southeast Asia. There is no official information on the state of unemployment. However, according to unofficial data, almost 1/3 of the economically active male population (women are practically not employed in the economy) is unemployed (2002). In this regard, Saudi Arabia, since 1996, has been implementing a policy to limit the hiring of foreign labor. Riyadh has developed a 5-year economic development plan designed to stimulate the employment of Saudi Arabian citizens. Companies (under the threat of penalties) are required to increase the hiring of Saudi workers by at least 5% per year. Simultaneously with 1996, the government declared 24 professions closed to foreigners. Today, the most successful replacement of foreigners with Saudi nationals is taking place mainly in the public sector, where the state has hired more than 700,000 Saudis in recent years. In 2003, the Saudi Interior Ministry unveiled a new 10-year plan to reduce the number of foreign workers. Under this plan, the number of foreigners, including working immigrants and their families, by 2013 should be reduced to 20% of the number of native Saudis. Thus, according to experts' forecasts, taking into account the growth of the country's population, a foreign colony should be reduced by about half in a decade.

Urbanization.

Until the early 1960s, the majority of the population were nomads and semi-nomads. Due to rapid economic growth, the proportion of the urban population has increased from 23.6% (1970) to 80% (2003). In the late 1990s, ca. 95% of the population switched to a sedentary lifestyle. Most of the population is concentrated in oases and cities. Average density 12.4 people/sq. km (some cities and oases have a density of more than 1,000 people / sq. km). The most densely populated areas are off the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the north-east of it, where the main oil-producing areas are located. The population of the capital, Riyadh (since 1984, diplomatic missions have been located here), is 3627 thousand (all data for 2003), or 14% of the country's population (annual population growth in the city between 1974 and 1992 reached 8.2%), mainly these are Saudis, as well as citizens of other Arab, Asian and Western countries. The population of Jeddah, the main port of the Hijaz and the most important business center of Saudi Arabia, is 2674 thousand people. Until 1984, diplomatic missions of foreign states were located here. In Hijaz there are also two holy cities of Muslims - Mecca (1541 thousand) and Medina (818 thousand), - accessible only to Muslim pilgrims. In 1998, these cities were visited by approx. 1.13 million pilgrims, including approx. 1 million - from various Muslim countries, as well as North and South America, Europe and Asia. Other large cities: Damman (675 thousand), At-Taif (633 thousand), Tabuk (382 thousand). Their population consists of representatives of various Arab countries, including the countries of the Persian Gulf, Indians, as well as people from North America and Europe. Bedouins, who maintain a nomadic lifestyle, inhabit mainly the northern and eastern regions of the country. More than 60% of the entire territory (the deserts of Rub al-Khali, Nefud, Dahna) does not have a permanent settled population, even nomads do not penetrate into some areas.

Language.

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Standard Arabic, which belongs to the West Semitic group of the Afroasian family. One of its dialects is Classical Arabic, which, due to its archaic sound, is currently used mainly in a religious context. In everyday life, the Arabian dialect of Arabic (ammiya) is used, which is closest to the literary Arabic language, which developed from the classical language (el-fusha). Within the Arabian dialect, dialects of Hijaz, Asir, Nejd and Al-Hasa, close to each other, are distinguished. Although the differences between the literary and spoken language are less marked here than in other Arab countries, the language of the city dwellers differs from the dialects of the nomads. English, Tagalog, Urdu, Hindi, Farsi, Somali, Indonesian, etc. are also common among people from other countries.

Religion.

Saudi Arabia is the center of the Islamic world. The official religion is Islam. According to various estimates, between 85% and 93.3% of Saudis are Sunnis; from 3.3% to 15% are Shiites. In the central part of the country, almost the entire population is Hanbali-Wahhabis (they include more than half of all Sunnis in the country). In the west and southwest, the Shafi'i sense of Sunnism prevails. There are also Hanifis, Malikis, Hanbalis-Salafi and Khanbadis-Wahhabis. In a small number there are Ismaili Shiites and Zaidis. A significant group of Shiites (about a third of the population) lives in the east, in Al-Has. Christians make up about 3% of the population (according to the American Conference of Catholic Bishops, St. 500 thousand Catholics live in the country), all other confessions - 0.4% (in 1992, unofficially). There is no information on the number of atheists.

GOVERNMENT

The first legal documents establishing general principles state structure and governance of the country, were adopted in March 1992. According to Fundamentals of the system of power, Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the founding king, Abdulaziz ibn Abdul Rahman al-Faisal Al Saud. The Holy Qur'an serves as the constitution of the country, which is governed on the basis of Islamic law (Sharia).

The highest authorities include the head of state and the crown prince; Council of Ministers; Advisory Council; High Council of Justice. However, the real structure of monarchical power in Saudi Arabia is somewhat different from how it is presented in theory. To a large extent, the power of the king is based on the Al Saud family, which consists of more than 5 thousand people and forms the basis of the monarchical system in the country. The king rules, relying on the advice of leading representatives of the family, in particular his brothers. His relations with religious leaders are built on the same basis. Equally important to the stability of the kingdom is the support of noble families such as al-Sudairi and Ibn Jiluwi, as well as the religious family of Al ash-Sheikh, a side branch of the Saudi dynasty. These families have remained loyal to the Al Saud clan for almost two centuries.

Central executive power.

The head of state and the country's religious leader (imam) is the Minister of the Two Holy Mosques, King (malik) Fahd bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (since June 13, 1982), who is simultaneously prime minister, commander-in-chief of the armed forces and supreme judge. Since 1932, the country has been ruled by the Saudi dynasty. The head of state has full executive, legislative and judicial powers. Its powers are theoretically limited only by Sharia and Saudi traditions. The king is called upon to maintain the unity of the royal family, religious leaders (ulama) and other elements of Saudi society.

The mechanism of succession to the throne was officially fixed only in 1992. The heir to the throne is appointed during his lifetime by the king himself, with the subsequent approval of the ulema. In accordance with tribal traditions, there is no clear system of succession to the throne in Saudi Arabia. Power usually passes to the eldest in the family, the most suitable for the performance of the functions of the ruler. Since 1995, due to the illness of the monarch, the de facto head of state is the Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (half-brother of the monarch, heir to the throne from June 13, 1982, regent from January 1 to February 22, 1996). To ensure a conflict-free change of power in the country, in early June 2000, by the decision of King Fahd and Crown Prince Abdullah, the Royal Family Council was formed, which includes 18 of the most influential direct descendants of the founder of the Arabian monarchy, Ibn Saud.

According to the constitution, the king heads the government (it has existed in its current form since 1953) and determines the main directions of its activity. The Council of Ministers combines both executive and legislative functions. All its decisions, which must be compatible with Sharia law, are taken by majority vote and are subject to final approval by royal decree. The cabinet consists of the prime minister, the first and second vice prime ministers, 20 ministers (including the minister of defense, who is the second vice prime minister), as well as ministers of state and advisers appointed as members of the council of ministers by royal decree. The most important ministries are usually headed by representatives of the royal family. The ministers assist the king in exercising his powers in accordance with the constitution and other laws. The King has the right to dissolve or reorganize the Council of Ministers at any time. Since 1993, each minister has been limited to a four-year term. On August 2, 1995, King Fahd made the most significant personnel changes in the last decades in the cabinet of ministers, which left 16 out of 20 ministers of the current government.

Legislature.

There is no legislature - the king rules the country through decrees. Since December 1993, an Advisory Council (CC, Majlis al-Shura) has been operating under the monarch, consisting of scientists, writers, businessmen, prominent members of the royal family and representing the first public forum in the history of Saudi Arabia. The Constitutional Court is called upon to develop recommendations to the government on the socio-economic development of the country, to prepare opinions on various legal acts and international agreements. At least 10 members of the Council have the right of legislative initiative. They may propose a new draft law or additions and changes to existing legislation and submit them to the Chairman of the Council. All decisions, reports and recommendations of the Council must be submitted directly to the King and the President of the Council of Ministers for consideration. If the points of view of the two councils agree, the decision is made with the consent of the king; if the points of view do not agree, the king has the right to decide which option will be accepted.

According to the decree of 1993, the Advisory Council consisted of 60 members and a chairman appointed by the king for a term of 4 years. In July 1997, the number of CC increased to 90 members, and in May 2001 - up to 120. Chairman of the Council - Mohammed bin Jubair (in 1997 retained his post for a second term). With the expansion, the composition of the Council also changed, in 1997 for the first time three representatives from the Shiite minority were included; in 1999, women were allowed to attend meetings of the Constitutional Court. Recently, the importance of the Advisory Council has gradually increased. There are calls from the moderate liberal opposition to hold general elections to the Constitutional Court.

Judicial system.

Sharia provisions are the basis of the civil and judicial codes. Thus, all marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, criminal and other matters are regulated by Islamic regulations. Several secular laws were also passed in 1993. The country's judicial system consists of disciplinary and general courts that deal with simple criminal and civil cases; Sharia or Cassation Court; and the Supreme Court, which examines and reviews all the most serious cases, and also supervises the activities of other courts. All courts are governed by Islamic law. Religious judges, qadis, preside over the courts. The members of the religious courts are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the High Council of Justice, which consists of 12 senior lawyers. The King is the highest court of appeal and has the right to issue pardons.

Local authorities.

In 1993, Saudi Arabia was divided into 13 provinces (emirates) by royal decree. By decree of 1994, the provinces were, in turn, divided into 103 districts. Power in the provinces belongs to governors (emirs) appointed by the king. The most important cities, such as Riyadh, Mecca and Medina, are headed by governors belonging to the royal family. Local affairs are administered by the Provincial Councils, whose members are appointed by the king from representatives of the most distinguished families.

In 1975, the authorities of the kingdom issued a law on municipal elections, but elected municipalities were never formed. In 2003, the intention to hold the first municipal elections in the history of the kingdom was announced. Half of the seats in 14 regional councils will be elected, the other half will be appointed by the Saudi government. Elections to the regional councils are seen as a step towards the reforms announced in May 2003 by King Fahd.

Human rights.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that refused to recognize some articles of the International Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948. According to the human rights organization Freedom House, Saudi Arabia is one of the nine countries with the worst regime in the field of political and civil rights. The most obvious human rights violations in Saudi Arabia include: mistreatment of prisoners; prohibitions and restrictions in the field of freedom of speech, press, meetings and organizations, religion; systematic discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities, as well as the suppression of workers' rights. The country retains the death penalty; Since the Gulf War in 1991, Saudi Arabia has seen a steady increase in the number of executions. In addition to public executions, arrests and imprisonment of dissidents are widely practiced in the kingdom.

Political parties and movements.

Despite the ban on the activities of political parties and trade unions, there are a number of political, public and religious organizations of various orientations that oppose the regime in the country.

The leftist opposition includes a few groups of nationalist and communist orientation, based mainly on foreign workers and national minorities, among them: the Voice of the Vanguard, the Communist Party of Saudi Arabia, the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, the Green Party, the Socialist Labor Party, the Socialist Front of Saudi Arabia, Union of the Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Zones of the Persian Gulf. In recent years, their activity has noticeably decreased, many groups have broken up.

The liberal opposition is not institutionalized. It is represented mainly by businessmen, intellectuals, technocrats and advocates for the expansion of the participation of various representatives of society in government, the accelerated modernization of the country, political and judicial reforms, the introduction of Western democratic institutions, the reduction of the role of conservative religious circles and the improvement of the status of women. The number of supporters of the liberal opposition is small, but in recent years the royal regime, striving to maintain good relations with the West, has been forced to listen more and more to its opinion.

The most radical opposition force is the conservative and religious-fundamentalist Islamic circles of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion. The Islamist movement arose as early as the 1950s as a conglomerate of informal groups, but finally took shape only by the early 1990s. Among the Sunni opposition, three currents stand out: the moderate wing of traditionalist Wahhabism, the militant neo-Wahhabism, and the liberally oriented movement of supporters of Islamic reforms.

Traditionalists include many ulema, elderly theologians, and once-powerful tribal sheikhs. In the 1990s, traditionalists were represented by such organizations as the Ancestral Piety Imitation Group, the Quran Preservation Group, the Monotheists, the Callers, and others.

Neo-Wahhabis, according to many experts, rely on unemployed youth, teachers and students of theology, as well as former Mujahideen who fought in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and Chechnya. They sharply criticize the government for its actions during the Gulf War, the foreign military presence in the country, Western-style modernization of society, and defend Islamic values. Intelligence agencies suggest that the most militant circles of neo-Wahhabism are linked to international terrorist organizations (al-Qaeda, the Muslim Brotherhood) and may be behind a number of attacks against foreigners in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Moderate Islamists are represented by the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights" (formed in May 1993) and the "Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia" (arose in March 1996 as a result of a split in the Committee). Both groups operate predominantly in the UK and in their statements combine radical Islamist rhetoric with demands for reforms in the political, social and economic spheres, expansion of freedom of speech and assembly, contacts with Western countries, and respect for human rights.

Shia Islamists represent a religious minority in the Eastern Province and advocate the abolition of all restrictions on Shiites and the freedom to practice their religious rites. The most radical Shiite groups are considered to be Saudi Hezbollah (also known as Hezbollah Hijaz, up to 1,000 people) and Islamic Jihad Hijaz. More moderate is the "Shia Reform Movement", which arose in the early 1990s on the basis of the "Organization of the Islamic Revolution". Since 1991 it has published Al-Jazeera al-Arabiya in London and Arabian Monitor in Washington.

Foreign policy.

Saudi Arabia has been a member of the UN and the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1945, since 1957 - a member of the IMF and IBRD, since 1960 - a member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Since 1948 it has been at war with Israel. It plays a significant and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund (IMF), the World Bank, in the Arab and Islamic institutions for financial assistance and development. One of the largest donors in the world, it provides assistance to a number of Arab, African and Asian countries. Since 1970, the headquarters of the secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, established in 1969, has been located in Jeddah.

Membership in OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries makes it easier to coordinate Saudi oil policy with other oil-exporting governments. As a leading oil exporter, Saudi Arabia has a particular interest in maintaining a sustainable and long-term market for its oil resources. All its actions are aimed at stabilizing the world oil market and reducing sharp price fluctuations.

One of the main principles of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is Islamic solidarity. The Saudi government often helps resolve regional crises and supports Israeli-Palestinian peace talks. As a member of the Arab League, Saudi Arabia supports the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territories occupied in June 1967; supports a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time condemns the Camp David Accords, which, in their opinion, are not capable of guaranteeing the right of the Palestinians to establish their own state and determine the status of Jerusalem. The latest Middle East peace plan was proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah in March 2002 at the annual Arab League summit. In accordance with it, Israel was asked to withdraw all its forces from the territories occupied after 1967, return the Palestinian refugees and recognize an independent Palestinian state with its capital in East Jerusalem. In exchange, Israel was guaranteed recognition by all Arab countries and the restoration of "normal relations." However, as a result of the position taken by a number of Arab countries and Israel, the plan failed.

During the Gulf War (1990–1991), Saudi Arabia played a critical role in building a broad international coalition. The Saudi Arabian government provided coalition forces with water, food and fuel. In total, the cost of the country during the war amounted to 55 billion dollars.

At the same time, the war in the Persian Gulf caused a deterioration in diplomatic relations with a number of Arab states. Only after the war were relations restored to their previous level with Tunisia, Algeria and Libya, which refused to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Saudi Arabia's relations with countries that expressed support for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - Yemen, Jordan and Sudan - remained extremely tense during the war and immediately after its end. One of the manifestations of this policy was the expulsion from Saudi Arabia of over a million Yemeni workers, which further exacerbated the existing border conflict. The pro-Iraqi position of the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) also led to a deterioration in its relations with Saudi Arabia and other countries of the Persian Gulf. Relations between Saudi Arabia and Jordan and the Palestinian Authority were normalized only in the late 1990s, at the same time the assistance of the Saudi government to the Palestinian authorities was resumed. In July 2002, the Saudi kingdom transferred $46.2 million to the accounts of the Palestinian Authority. Another $15.4 million was allocated by the government of Saudi Arabia as gratuitous assistance to the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in October 2002. This payment was made as part of the decisions Arab League summit in Beirut (March 27–28, 2002).

Saudi Arabia became one of three countries that established diplomatic relations with the Afghan Taliban in 1997, interrupted in 2001. Since the beginning of the 21st century, especially after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks, there have been signs of a cooling in the country's relations with a number of Western countries, caused by accusations in promoting international Islamic terrorism.

The country has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. First installed from the USSR in 1926. The Soviet mission was withdrawn in 1938; in September 1990, an agreement was reached on the complete normalization of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Saudi Arabia; The embassy in Riyadh has been functioning since May 1991.

Territorial conflicts.

In 1987, the demarcation of the border with Iraq in the former no man's land was completed. In 1996, the division of the neutral zone on the border with Kuwait was carried out. In early July 2000, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait agreed to demarcate the maritime boundary; the Kuwaiti possessions of Karukh and the island of Umm al-Maradim remain the object of the dispute. On June 12, 2000, a border agreement was concluded with Yemen, which established part of the border between the two countries. However, most of the border with Yemen is still undefined. Saudi Arabia's border with Qatar was finally established by agreements signed in June 1999 and March 2001. The position and status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been specified; the current border de facto reflects the agreement of 1974. Similarly, the border with Oman remains undemarcated.

Military establishment.

Since the 1970s, Saudi Arabia has spent huge amounts of money to expand and modernize its armed forces. After the Gulf War in 1991, the country's armed forces were further enlarged and equipped with the latest weapons, most of which came from the United States. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Saudi Arabia's military budget in 2002 was $18.7 billion, or 11% of GDP. The armed forces consist of ground forces, air and naval forces, air defense forces, the National Guard, and the Ministry of Internal Forces. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief is the King, the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff are directly in charge of the armed forces. All command positions are held by members of the ruling family. The total number of regular armed forces is about 126.5 thousand people. (2001). The ground forces (75 thousand people) have 9 armored, 5 mechanized, 1 airborne brigades, 1 regiment of the Royal Guard, 8 artillery battalions. In service with 1055 tanks, 3105 armored personnel carriers, St. 1000 pieces of artillery and rocket launchers. Air Force (20 thousand people) are armed with St. 430 combat aircraft and approx. 100 helicopters. Air defense forces (16 thousand people) include 33 missile divisions. The Navy (15.5 thousand people) consists of two flotillas, they are armed with approx. 100 combat and auxiliary ships. The main naval bases are Jeddah and Al Jubail. In the mid-1950s, the National Guard was also created from tribal militias loyal to the royal family (about 77 thousand, including 20 thousand tribal militias), which, according to Western experts, significantly exceeds regular forces in terms of level of training and weapons. Its task is to ensure the security of the ruling dynasty, the protection of oil fields, airfields, ports, as well as the suppression of anti-government protests. In addition to the regular armed forces, there is also a Border Guard Corps (10.5 thousand) and coast guard troops (4.5 thousand). The recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment.

ECONOMY

Currently, the backbone of the Saudi Arabian economy is free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over the main areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proved reserves of crude oil amount to 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cube m. (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export earnings, 75% of government revenues and 35–45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector. In 1992, Saudi Arabia's GDP was equivalent to $112.98 billion, or $6,042 per capita. In 1997, the GDP was $146.25 billion, or $7,792 per capita; in 1999 it increased to $191 billion, or $9,000 per person; in 2001 - up to 241 billion dollars, or 8460 dollars per person. However, real economic growth lags behind the increase in the number of inhabitants, leading to unemployment and a reduction in per capita income. The share of economic sectors not related to the extraction and processing of oil in GDP increased from 46% in 1970 to 67% in 1992 (in 1996 it fell to 65%).

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin privatization of electrical companies, following the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has been booming in recent years. The main priorities of the Saudi government in the near future is to allocate additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, since water shortages and rapid population growth do not allow the country to fully provide itself with agricultural products.

The oil industry and its role.

The largest holder of oil concessions and the main oil producer is the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO). Since the early 1970s, it has been under the control of the Saudi Arabian government, and before that it was wholly owned by a consortium of American companies. The company received a concession in 1933 and began exporting oil in 1938. The second World War interrupted the development of the oil industry, which resumed in 1943, with the start of the construction of an oil refinery in the oil port of Ras Tanura. Oil production gradually increased from 2.7 thousand tons / day before 1944 to 33.5 thousand tons / day in 1947 and 68.1 thousand tons / day in 1949. By 1977, the daily oil production in Saudi Arabia had increased to 1, 25 million tons and remained high during the 1980s, until it began to decline as a result of a decrease in demand for oil in the world market. In 1992, approx. 1.15 million tons / day, with 97% of production accounted for by ARAMCO. Oil production is also carried out by other, smaller companies, such as the Japanese Arabian Oil Company, which operates in coastal waters near the border with Kuwait, and the Getty Oil Company, which produces onshore near the border with Kuwait. In 1996 Saudi Arabia's OPEC quota was approx. 1.17 million tons per day. In 2001, the average production was 8.6 billion barrels/day (460 billion tons/year). In addition, it uses reserves located in the so-called "neutral zone" on the border with Kuwait, which give it an additional 600,000 barrels of oil per day. The largest oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, on the coast of the Persian Gulf or on the shelf.

Main refineries: Aramco - Ras Tanura (capacity 300 thousand barrels / day), Rabig (325 thousand barrels / day), Yanbu (190 thousand barrels / day), Riyadh (140 thousand barrels / day), Jeddah ( 42 thousand barrels / day), Aramco-Mobil - Yanbu (332 thousand barrels / day), Petromin / Shell - al-Jubeil (292 thousand barrels / day), Arabian Oil Company - Ras al-Khafji (30 thousand . barrels/day).

The most important factor in the development of the oil industry is the close and mutually beneficial relationship that has developed between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO's activities contributed to the influx of qualified personnel into the country and the creation of new jobs for the Saudis.

Significant changes in relations between the oil companies and the government of Saudi Arabia began in 1972. In accordance with the agreement signed by the parties, the government received 25% of ARAMCO's property. It was determined that the share of Saudi Arabia would gradually increase to 51% by 1982. However, in 1974 the government accelerated this process and acquired a 60% stake in ARAMCO. In 1976, the oil companies pledged to transfer all of ARAMCO's property to Saudi Arabia. In 1980, the entire ownership of ARAMCO passed to the government of Saudi Arabia. In 1984, for the first time, a citizen of Saudi Arabia became the president of the company. Since 1980, the government of Saudi Arabia began to determine the price of oil and the volume of its production, and oil companies received the rights to develop oil fields as government subcontractors.

The growth in oil production was accompanied by a significant increase in revenues from its sale, especially after a four-fold jump in oil prices in 1973-1974, which led to a huge increase in government revenues, which increased from $ 334 million in 1960 to $ 2.7 billion in 1972, $30 billion in 1974, $33.5 billion in 1976 and $102 billion in 1981. Subsequently, the demand for oil on the world market began to decline, and by 1989 Saudi Arabia's oil revenues had fallen to $24 billion. The crisis that began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 raised world oil prices again; accordingly, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports increased in 1991 to almost $43.5 billion. In 1998, as a result of a sharp drop in world oil prices at the beginning of the year, Saudi Arabia's oil revenues amounted to $43.7 billion.

Industry.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). The growth of industrial production in 1997 was 1%. In the past, Saudi Arabian industry was underdeveloped, especially non-oil industries. In 1962, the government's General Organization of Petroleum and Mineral Resources (PETROMIN) was created, whose task is to develop the oil and mining industry and also to create new oil, mining, and metallurgical enterprises. In 1975, the Ministry of Industry and Energy was formed, which took over responsibility for PETROMIN's enterprises not related to oil production and refining. PETROMIN's largest projects were the steel plant in Jeddah, built in 1968, and the oil refineries in Jeddah and Riyadh, built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. PETROMIN also provided 51% of the funds for the construction of a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Dammam, completed in 1970.

In 1976, the Saudi Arabian Government Heavy Industry Corporation (SABIC) was established - a holding company with an initial capital of $ 2.66 billion. By 1994, SABIC owned 15 large enterprises in Al Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah, which produced chemicals, plastics, industrial gas , steel and other metals. In Saudi Arabia, the food and glass industries, handicrafts and the building materials industry, in particular cement, are well developed. In 1996, the volume of industrial production amounted to approx. 55% of GDP.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula mined gold, silver and copper in deposits located approximately 290 km northeast of Jeddah. Currently, these deposits are being re-developed, and in 1992 approx. 5 tons of gold.

Electricity generation in Saudi Arabia has increased from 344 kW in 1970 to 17049 MW in 1992. To date, approx. 6,000 cities and rural settlements throughout the country. In 1998, electricity generation was 19,753 MW, with a 4.5% annual increase in electricity demand expected over the next two decades. To meet them, it will be necessary to increase electricity production to approximately 59,000 MW.

Agriculture.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to more than 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, the production of basic foodstuffs increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. The lands suitable for cultivation occupy 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Although the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, Saudi Arabia's agriculture, which uses modern technology and machinery, is a dynamic industry. The area of ​​cultivated land increased from 161.8 thousand hectares in 1976 to 3 million hectares in 1993, and Saudi Arabia turned from a country that imported most of the food into an exporter of food products. In 1992, agricultural output amounted to $5.06 billion in monetary terms, while the export of wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, vegetables and flowers brought in $533 million. The share of the agricultural sector in GDP with 1985 to 1995 increased by 6.0% per year. Barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice are also grown in the country. An important industry is animal husbandry, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses.

Long-term hydrological studies, begun in 1965, made it possible to discover significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources of Saudi Arabia operates more than 200 reservoirs with a total volume of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater daily, thus meeting 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

Only the agricultural project in Al-Khas, completed in 1977, made it possible to irrigate 12,000 hectares and provide employment for 50,000 people. Other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8,000 ha) and the Abha project in the Asira Mountains to the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new $294 million agricultural development project. The Ministry of Agriculture's budget increased from $395 million in 1997 to $443 million in 1998.

Transport.

Until the 1950s, transportation of goods within Saudi Arabia was carried out mainly by camel caravans. Built in 1908, the Hijaz railway (1300 km, including 740 km along the Hijaz) has not functioned since the First World War. For the transportation of pilgrims, an auto message was used along the route Najaf (in Iraq) - Hail - Medina.

The start of oil production completely changed the country's economy and ensured its rapid growth. The impetus for rapid development was the creation of a network of roads, ports and communications. In the 1970s-1990s, an extensive road network was created that connected the vast arid regions located in remote parts of the country. The largest highway crosses the Arabian Peninsula from Dammam on the Persian Gulf through Riyadh and Mecca to Jeddah on the Red Sea. In 1986, construction was completed on a 24-kilometer highway laid along a dam connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. As a result of extensive construction, the length of paved roads increased from 1,600 km in 1960 to over 44,104 km of highways and 102,420 km of unpaved roads in 1997.

The railway network has expanded significantly. There is one railway linking Riyadh through the Hofuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf (571 km); all R. In the 1980s, the railway was extended to the industrial center of Al Jubail, located north of Dammam; in 1972 a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). The total length of railways is 1392 km (2002).

An extensive network of pipelines has been created in the country: the length of pipelines for crude oil is 6400 km, oil products - 150 km, gas pipelines - 2200 km (including liquid natural gas - 1600 km). A large trans-Arabian oil pipeline connects the oil fields of the Persian Gulf with ports in the Red Sea. The main ports in the Persian Gulf: Ras Tanura, Dammam, Al Khobar and Mina Saud; on the Red Sea: Jeddah (the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go through it), Jizan and Yanbu.

Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. The Saudi National Shipping Company has 21 vessels for the transportation of petroleum products. In total, the marine merchant fleet has 71 vessels with a carrying capacity of 1.53 million dwt (including a number of vessels flying foreign flags).

There are three international (in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dhahran) and 206 regional and local airports and aircraft sites, as well as five heliports (2002). Aviation fleet - 113 transport and passenger aircraft. Air lines of the airline "Saudi Arabian Airlines" connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East.

The state budget.

The budget of Saudi Arabia in 1993-1994 was 46.7 billion dollars, in 1992-1993 - 52.5 billion dollars, and in 1983-1984 - 69.3 billion dollars. Such fluctuations were the result of falling export earnings oil, providing 80% of all state revenues. However, in fiscal year 1994, $11.5 billion was allocated to construction and renovation programs and $7.56 billion to higher education, universities, industry, and other development projects such as improving saline soils and electrification. In 2003, the revenue side of the budget of Saudi Arabia was $46 billion, and the expenditure side was $56.5 billion, in 2000 the revenue side of the budget was $41.9 billion, the expenditure side was $49.4 billion, 1997 budget revenues - 43 billion dollars, and expenditures - 48 billion dollars, the budget deficit amounted to 5 billion dollars. Since the end of 1999, rapidly rising oil prices have allowed the country to run a budget surplus ($12 billion in 2000). The country's external debt decreased from $28 billion (1998) to $25.9 billion (2003).

Since 1970, five-year development plans have been adopted. The Fifth Five-Year Plan (1990-1995) was aimed at strengthening the private sector, developing education, health care and social security; it also provided for an increase in defense spending. The Sixth Five-Year Development Plan (1995-1999) provided for the continuation of the economic policy of the previous period. The main attention is paid to the development of economic activity in sectors of the economy not related to the oil industry, primarily in the private sector, with particular emphasis on industry and agriculture. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1999–2003) focuses on economic diversification and strengthening the role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. During 2000–2004, the Saudi government aims to achieve an average annual GNP growth of 3.16%, with an estimated growth of 5.04% in the private sector and 4.01% in the non-oil sectors. The government has also set a goal of creating 817,300 new jobs for Saudi nationals.

Foreign economic relations

Saudi Arabia reflect its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, in particular Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries. Even after the fall in oil prices in the mid and late 1980s, the country maintained a positive foreign trade balance: if in 1991 imports totaled $29.6 billion and exports totaled $48.5 billion, then in 2001 these figures rose to 39.5 and 71 billion dollars, respectively. The trade surplus eventually rose from $18.9 billion (1991) to $31.5 billion (2001).

Saudi Arabia's main imports are industrial equipment, vehicles, armaments, foodstuffs, building materials, scientific equipment, chemical products, textiles and clothing. The main import flow comes from the USA (16.6%), Japan (10.4%), Great Britain (6.1%), Germany (7.4%), France (5%), Italy (4%) (on 2001). The government promised to make appropriate changes to trade, investment and tax laws in preparation for joining the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The main export item is oil and oil products (90%). In 2001, the main exporting countries were: Japan (15.8%), USA (18.5%), South Korea (10.3%), Singapore (5.4%), India (3.5%). Oil, which provides the main export earnings, is supplied to the United States, Japan and Western Europe. Due to the growth of industrial production, Saudi Arabia began to export petrochemical products, consumer goods and food products. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to 7.57 billion dollars.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; Since 1993, the country has transferred $208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Monetary system.

Since 1928: 1 sovereign = 10 riyals = 110 kershes, since 1952: 1 sovereign = 40 riyals = 440 kershes, since 1960: 1 Saudi riyal = 100 halalam. The functions of the central bank are carried out by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Religion.

Religion has always played a dominant role in Saudi society and still determines the lifestyle of the majority of the population. Most of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia, including the ruling house of the Saudis, belong to the followers of Wahhabism, one of the currents in Islam, which got its name from the name of the one who lived in the 18th century. reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They call themselves muwahhids, "monotheists", or simply Muslims. Wahhabism is an ascetic, puritanical trend within the most strict Hanbalist religious and legal school (madhhab) in Sunni Islam, in which special attention is paid to the strict observance of the precepts of Islam. Wahhabis are the guardians of sacred places, under their control there is a pilgrimage to Mecca. In Saudi Arabia, there are also followers of other currents of Sunni Islam - in Asir, Hijaz and Eastern Arabia. In Al-Has, in the east of the country, there is a significant number of Shiites (15%). The Constitution of Saudi Arabia contains a categorical prescription for the citizens of the country to practice Islam. Non-Muslim religions are only allowed among foreign workers. Any public manifestations of belonging to a non-Muslim religion (body crosses, the Bible, etc.), the sale of goods with non-Islamic symbols, as well as public worship are strictly prohibited. Individuals found to be "illegal practicing" their religion may be subject to judicial punishment or expulsion from the country. The entire social and cultural life of the country is regulated by the Muslim lunar calendar (lunar Hijra), such events as the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), the monthly fast (Ramadan), the feast of breaking the fast (Eid al-Fitr), the Feast of Sacrifice (id al-adha).

At the head of the religious community is the Ulema Council, which interprets Muslim laws. Every city has committees of public morals that monitor the implementation of the rules of conduct. At the beginning of the 20th century The Ulema Council opposed the introduction of a telephone, radio and car in Saudi Arabia on the grounds that such innovations are contrary to Sharia. However, changing conditions, notably rising wealth and the arrival of Western technology in Saudi Arabia, have led to a compromise between the demands of modern life and the limitations of Shariah. Over time, the problem was resolved. This was formalized by a decree of the Ulema Council (fatwa), declaring that Western innovations, from aircraft and television to commercial law, do not contradict Islam. However, most of the strict Wahhabi rules continue to apply, such as all women, Arab or European, being forbidden to associate with men in public places and to drive.

Lifestyle.

Arab nomads inhabiting the desert regions roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional dwellings are tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Settled Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of bricks dried in the sun, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, are now rare thanks to government housing policies.

The staple foods of the Arabs are mutton, lamb, chicken and game seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews cooked with onions and lentils. Many fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. Coffee is a popular drink. Used camel, sheep and goat milk. Sheep milk ghee (dahn) is commonly used for cooking.

The position of women.

Men play a dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil over her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her house, she may not cover her face only in front of the men from her family. The female (“forbidden”) half of the house, harim (hence the word “harem” comes from), is separated from the part where guests are received. Among the Bedouin women are usually more free; they may appear in society without a veil over their face and talk with strangers, nevertheless they occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. Marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered in a religious court. And although romantic love is a perennial theme of Arabic, especially Bedouin, poetry, marriages, as a rule, are organized without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main duty of a wife is to care for her husband and meet his needs, as well as raising children. As a rule, marriages are monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one rather than several wives. The husband may at any time apply to a judge (kadi) for a divorce, the only restrictions on him being the marriage contract and the relationship between the families concerned. A woman can apply to a qadi for a divorce only if there are grounds for doing so, such as mistreatment by her husband and poor maintenance, or sexual neglect.

Healthcare.

The country has a free healthcare system. Thanks to high spending on healthcare (over 8% of the budget), medical care in the kingdom has reached a very high level in recent decades. It extends to almost the entire population of the country - from residents of large cities to nomadic Bedouin tribes in the desert. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2, the death rate was 5.79 per 1,000 people; infant mortality - 47 per 1 thousand newborns. The average life expectancy is 68 years. Immunization of infants and young children is mandatory. The creation of an epidemic control system in 1986 made it possible to eliminate diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The structure of healthcare is mixed. In 1990-1991, there were 163 hospitals (25,835 beds) operating in the country, which were subordinate to the Ministry of Health. About 1/3 of medical institutions belonged to other ministries and departments (3785 beds). In addition, there were 64 private hospitals (6479 beds). There were 12,959 doctors (544 patients per doctor) and 29,124 paramedical personnel.

Education.

Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory elementary education and on the creation of secular public schools. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was created, which began to implement educational programs that focused on primary education and vocational training, as well as religious education. In the late 1950s, these programs covered secondary and higher education. In 1960 a law was passed on the compulsory education of girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls.

Spending on education for many years ranked second in the budget, and in 1992 this item even moved to first place. In 1995, government spending on education was $12 billion, or 12% of total spending. In 1994, the education system included 7 universities, 83 institutes and 18 thousand schools, in 1996 - 21 thousand schools (290 thousand teachers). In the 1996/1997 academic year, approx. 3.8 million children. The age of entry to school is 6 years. Primary school 6-year, secondary school consists of two levels: incomplete secondary school (3 years) and complete secondary (3 years). Education for boys and girls is separate. In the early 1990s, girls accounted for 44% of the 3 million primary and secondary school students and 46% of university students. Education for girls is managed by a special supervisory board, which also oversees educational programs for adult women. Students are provided with textbooks and medical care. There is a special department dealing with schools for sick children. In accordance with the Fifth 5-year development plan, $1.6 billion was allocated for the development of technical education and vocational training in such areas as medicine, agriculture, education, etc.

There are 16 universities, 7 universities in the country. Universities are administered by the Ministry of Higher Education. These include the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abd al-Aziz in Jeddah (founded in 1967), University. King Faisal (having branches in Dammam and Al-Hofuf) (founded in 1975), Islamic University. Imam Mohammed ibn Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1950, university status since 1974), Umm el-Kura University in Mecca (founded in 1979) and the University. King Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1957). The number of university students in 1996 was 143,787 people, teaching staff - 9490 people. About 30 thousand students study abroad.

Thanks to state educational programs, the authorities managed to significantly reduce the level of illiteracy among the population. If in 1972 the number of illiterates reached 80% of the population, then by 2003 it was 21.2% (men - 15.3%, women - 29.2%).

major libraries.

National Library (founded in 1968), Saud Library, Riyadh University Library, Mahmudiya Library, Arif Hikmat Library and Medina University Library.

Culture.

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and defines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influence that other Arab states have experienced. The country lacks a literary tradition comparable to that of the Arab countries of the Mediterranean. Perhaps the only known Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishr can be considered the most famous. The absence of a literary tradition in Saudi Arabia is partly offset by a deeply rooted tradition in oral prose and poetry dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been nullified by the prohibition imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. There are few performers of folk music and songs, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are the first pop star of Saudi Arabia Abdu Majid-e-Abdallah and the virtuoso of the Arabic lute (oud) Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban was imposed on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural ornaments, such as friezes and mosaics, incorporating traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism disapproves of the erection of elaborately decorated mosques, so that modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to ancient, aesthetically more interesting ones (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years seems to be the restoration and decoration of the mosque at the burial site of the Prophet in Medina, as well as the significant expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The austerity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters and public cinemas in the country, spectacles and performances are prohibited.

Printing, broadcasting, television, internet.

The activities of the Saudi media is the most regulated in the entire Arab world. They are not allowed to criticize the government and the royal family, or to question religious institutions. Only since 2002–2003 have there been signs of liberalization of state media policy. The press and television began to cover topics that were previously considered taboo. Newspapers in Saudi Arabia can only be established by royal decree. Published 10 daily newspapers and dozens of magazines (2003). On the Arabic: "Al-Bilyad", since 1934, circulation 30 thousand copies; Al Jazeera; "An-Nadva", since 1958, 35 thousand copies; "Al-Medina al-Munavvara", since 1937, 55 thousand copies; "Riyadh", since 1964, 140 thousand copies; Arab News. The government news agency is the Saudi Press Agency (SPA), founded in 1970.

Radio broadcasting has been conducted since 1948, there are 76 radio stations (1998) controlled by the state and broadcasting news reports, speeches, sermons, educational and religious programs. Since 2002, the opposition radio station Voice of Reforms, which belongs to the Movement for Islamic Reforms in Arabia, has also been broadcasting from Europe.

Television has existed since 1965, there are 3 television networks and 117 television stations (1997). All television and radio broadcasting is carried out by the State Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Minister of Culture and Information is the chairman of the Radio and Television Supervision Authority.

The cellular telephone network has been in existence since 1981; Internet - since the late 1990s, there are 22 Internet Service Providers (2003), 1453 thousand registered users (2002). According to unofficial data, 2/3 of Internet users are women. Government censorship and protection systems are in place to block access to websites deemed offensive to Islamic morality. In total, access to several thousand websites is blocked.

STORY

The territory of the Arabian Peninsula from ancient times (2 thousand BC) was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves "al-Arab" (Arabs). In 1 thousand BC. in various parts of the peninsula, the ancient Arab states begin to take shape - the Minean (before 650 BC), Sabaean (c. 750–115 BC), Himyarite kingdoms (c. 25 BC - 577 AD .). In the 6th–2nd centuries BC. in the north of Arabia, slave-owning states arose (the Nabataean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, and others). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Makoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd–5th centuries Judaism and Christianity are spreading on the peninsula. On the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in the Hijaz, Najran and Yemen, religious communities of Christians and Jews arise. At the end of the 5th c. AD in Nejd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence extended to a number of neighboring areas, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. Prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. All R. 6th c. The Arabs, led by the Quraysh tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to capture Mecca. In the 7th century AD in the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion arose - Islam, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The relocation of the capital of the caliphates from Medina, first to Damascus (661) and then to Baghdad (749), led to the fact that Arabia became the outskirts of a huge state. In the 7th–8th centuries most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad Caliphate, in the 8th–9th centuries. - Abbasids. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hijaz, which retained the importance of the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th-12th centuries. remained in vassalage to the Fatimids, in the 12th–13th centuries. - Ayyubids, and then - Mamluks (since 1425). In 1517 Western Arabia, including Hijaz and Asir, were subject to the Ottoman Empire. All R. 16th century the power of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, an area on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From that moment until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Nejd, whose population was made up of Bedouins and farmers of the oases, enjoyed much greater independence. This whole area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at war with each other.

The first Saudi state.

The roots of the state structure of modern Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century, called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (r. 1726/27-1765), the leader of the Anayza tribe who inhabited the Ad-Diriya region in central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious and political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Nejd emirs to the territory of the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdel Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765–1803), assumed the title of imam, which meant the unification of both secular and spiritual power in his hands. Relying on the alliance of the Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of the "holy war", demanding from the neighboring sheikhs and sultanates the recognition of the Wahhabi doctrine and joint action against the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 set about conquering neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis captured El-Khasa, stormed El-Katif, where they finally fortified by 1795. An attempt by the Ottoman Empire to restore its power over El-Khasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the Red Sea coast, raiding the outskirts of Hijaz and Yemen and capturing oases located along the borders. By 1803, almost the entire coast of the Persian Gulf and the islands adjacent to it (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subjugated by the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801 Abdulaziz's armies invaded Iraq and ravaged the Shia holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4,000 citizens and taking the treasure, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, however, outside the Arabian Peninsula, the teachings of al-Wahhab did not find support among the local population. The destruction of the cities in Iraq restored the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ad-Diriya mosque. But even under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdul Aziz (1803-1814), Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subjugated.

From the end of the 18th century the frequent Wahhabi raids began to worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire more and more. With the capture of the Hejaz by the Wahhabis, the power of the Saudis extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud was given the title Khadim-al-Haramain (Servant of the Holy Cities), which gave him the opportunity to claim leadership in the Muslim world. The loss of the Hejaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy issued a fatwa, an official religious edict, outlawing the followers of al-Wahhab. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811 the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and the desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and in January of the following year, Mecca, Taif and Jeddah. They restored the annual pilgrimage to the holy places, which had been banned by the Wahhabis, and returned control of the Hijaz to the Hashemites. After the death of Saud in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdel Aziz became the emir of Nejd. In early 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabist forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in Hijaz, Asir and in strategically important areas between Hijaz and Najd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. Peace was signed in the spring of 1815. Under the terms of the agreement, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and North-Eastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to secure the Hajj and return the treasures stolen by the Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraida and Unayza. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, having enlisted the support of most of the tribes, in early 1818 invaded Najd and in April 1818 laid siege to Ed-Diriya. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriya, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered to the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul, and was publicly executed there. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Ed-Diriya was destroyed. Fortifications were demolished in all the cities of Najd and Egyptian garrisons were placed. In 1819, the entire territory that previously belonged to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

The second Saudi state.

However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The dissatisfaction of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ad-Diriya, led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, a year later, the Wahhabis again managed to recover from the defeat and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822–1834), the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and cousin of Abdullah, who returned from exile, restored the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriya, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, Turki recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis perished from hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. The Egyptian garrisons remained in Qasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the recalcitrant Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis recaptured the coast of El-Khasa by 1830 and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay tribute to them. Three years later, they subjugated the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of El Katif, including part of the territory of Oman and Muscat. Under the control of Egypt, only Hijaz remained, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831 they supported the claims to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, Turki's cousin. A long period of struggle for power began in the country. In 1834, Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took control of Riyadh, killed the Turki, and sat in his place. However, a month later, Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Najd (1834-1838, 1843-1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for the new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, the Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and a year later captured Riyadh; Faisal was captured and sent to Cairo, where he stayed until 1843. Khalid I ibn Saud (1838–1842), son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity, was put in his place. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was used by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with Khalid's pro-Egyptian course. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Nejd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who at that moment was in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign also proved short-lived. In 1843, he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal managed to restore the virtually collapsed emirate. Over the next three decades, the Wahhabi Najd again began to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851-1852, 1859) tried to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Treaty Coast and the hinterland of Oman. For a short moment, the Saudi dominion again extended over a large area from Jabal Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance on the coast of the Persian Gulf was stopped only by the intervention of Great Britain. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, vassal tribes often fought among themselves and raised uprisings.

After the death of Faisal (1865), intertribal struggle was supplemented by dynastic strife. Between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Nejd between his three sons, a fierce internecine struggle broke out for the "senior table". In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865–1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871–1875). In the next five years, the throne changed hands at least 7 times. Each side created its own groupings, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was violated; tribal associations were no longer subordinate to the central authority. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a brief period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875–1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarakhman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the backdrop of this struggle, the Saudis were pushed into the shadows by the rival Rashidid dynasty, which ruled from 1835 the emirate of Jabel Shammar. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, Shammar emir Mohammed ibn Rashid (1869-1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic civil strife in the North of Arabia and unite Jabel Shammar and Qasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and, with their help, began to fight against the emirs from the House of Saud. In 1887, Abdullah III, once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. In the same year, the Rashidids took Riyadh, placing their own governor in the city. Being in fact as hostages in Hail, the representatives of the Saudi dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay tribute to him. In 1889, Abdullah, appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdullah, however, died the same year; he was replaced by Abdarakhman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Nejd. In the Battle of El Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarakhman fled with his family to Al-Khasa, and then to Kuwait, where he found refuge with the local ruler. Rashidid governors and representatives were appointed to the captured areas of Riyadh and Qasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabal Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashidid emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the formation of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by the emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhammad al-Saud, later known as Ibn Saud), who returned in 1901 from exile and started a war against Rashidid dynasty. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait, Mubarak, with a small detachment of his supporters, captured Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Nejd and receive support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained his control over much of southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids in 1904 turned to the Ottoman Empire for help. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to go on the defensive for a short while, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. The possessions of Ibn Saud nominally became the district of the Ottoman vilayet of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued to fight for some time. But in April 1906 their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897–1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the rights of the Saudis to Nejd and Qasim. Through an exchange of letters, the Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid confirmed this agreement. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Qasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud sought to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible posts and the involvement of ulema in solving state problems. Unstable elements hindering the unity of Arabia remained the Bedouin tribes, who retained the tribal organization and did not recognize the state system. In an effort to achieve the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. For this purpose, in 1912, a military-religious brotherhood was founded. Ikhwans (Arab."brothers"). All the Bedouin tribes and oases who refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam began to be seen as enemies of Nejd. Ikhvans were ordered to move to agricultural colonies (“hijras”), whose members were called to love their homeland, unquestioningly obey the imam-emir and not enter into any contacts with Europeans and residents of the countries they ruled (including Muslims). A mosque was erected in each Ikhwan community, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwans themselves became not only farmers, but also warriors of the Saudi state. By 1915, more than 200 such settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people who, at the first call of Ibn Saud, were ready to go to war with the "infidels."

With the help of the Ikhwans, Ibn Saud established complete control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Khasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude in May 1914 a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Khasa as the possessions of the Emir of Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the fact that on December 26, 1915, an agreement was signed in Darin About friendship and union with the government of British India. Ibn Saud was recognized as the emir of Nejd, Qasim and Al-Khasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with her, not to attack British possessions on the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter into agreements with countries other than Great Britain, as well as again starting a war against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received substantial military and financial assistance (in the amount of £60 per year). Despite the agreement, the Nejdi emirate did not take part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of a secret correspondence between the British High Commissioner in Egypt, McMahon, and the Grand Sheriff of Mecca, Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi, on October 24, 1915, an agreement was reached, according to which Hussein undertook to raise the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In exchange, Great Britain recognized the independence of the future Arab state of the Hashemites within its "natural borders" (part of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of the British protectorates and territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which were claimed by France). In accordance with the agreement in June 1916, detachments of the Hijaz tribes, led by Hussein's son Faisal and the British colonel T.E. Lawrence, revolted. Assuming the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hejaz from the Ottoman Empire. Using diplomatic recognition, on October 19, 1916, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire and 10 days later took the title of "king of all Arabs." However, Great Britain and France, which secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (the Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as the king of the Hijaz. By July 1917, the Arabs cleared the Hejaz from the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, detachments under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Truce of Mudros, concluded on October 30, 1918, the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separation of the Hijaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most of the neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near the city of Turab, located on the border between Hijaz and Nejd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the sheriff of Mecca had no strength left to defend the Hijaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud occupied Upper Asir; the emirate was declared a protectorate of Nejd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, the city of Hail, the capital of Jabal Shammar, fell under the blows of the Ikhwans. With the defeat in the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidid emir, Jabal Shammar was annexed to the dominions of the Saudis. August 22, 1921 Ibn Saud was proclaimed the Sultan of Najd and dependent territories. In the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his authority over all of northern Arabia.

Encouraged by their successes, the Ikhwans continued their advance north, invading the border regions of Iraq, Kuwait, and Transjordan. Not wanting to strengthen the Saudis, Great Britain supported the sons of Hussein - King Faisal of Iraq and Emir of Transjordan Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated by signing the so-called Uqair on May 5, 1922. the "Muhammar Agreement" to demarcate the borders with Iraq and Kuwait; neutral zones were established in the disputed areas. A conference convened the following year by the British government to settle disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Nejd and Hijaz ended without results. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, Saudi possessions doubled.

The adoption by King Hussein of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Nejd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of apostasy from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as caliph and convened a conference of ulema, at which a decision was made to wage war against the Hijaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwans invaded the Hijaz and captured Mecca in October. Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabi offensive was continued the following year. Territorial concessions to Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the issue of belonging to Palestine, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over the Hijaz with relative ease. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, at the Grand Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the King of Hijaz and the Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state was named "Kingdom of Hijaz, the Sultanate of Najd and the annexed areas"). February 16, 1926 Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it. Hijaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within the united state; the son of Ibn Saud was appointed his viceroy (vice-king), under which a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of the "eminent citizens" of Mecca. The assembly considered bills and other issues that the governor put before him, but all his decisions were advisory in nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed the king of Hijaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name "Kingdom of Hijaz and Najd and the annexed regions"). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of Hijaz-Najd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the "special relations" of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (G. Clayton's treaty).

With the conquest of the Hijaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the Hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hijaz, taxes were levied "in kind"). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took steps to normalize relations with the Western powers and their allies in the Arab countries. However, along this path, Ibn Saud encountered internal opposition in the person of the Ikhwans. The modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such “innovations” as telephones, cars, the telegraph, sending the son of Saud Faisal to the “country of unbelievers” - Egypt) they regarded as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel breeding, caused by the import of cars, further increased discontent among the Bedouins.

By 1926 the Ikhwan had become uncontrollable. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, announced as part of the fight against the "infidels", became a serious diplomatic problem for Najd and Hijaz. In response to the resumption of Ikhwan raids on the border regions of Iraq, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after the bombing of British aircraft on the troops of Ibn Saud, hostilities between the two states were stopped. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). On February 22, 1930, Ibn Saud made peace with King Faisal of Iraq (son of the former Emir Hejaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashimi dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919–1930).

In 1928 the leaders of the Ikhwans, accusing Ibn Saud of betraying the cause for which they were fighting, openly challenged the authority of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which gave him the opportunity to quickly put down the uprising. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of merchants in Nejd forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwans (1929). The actions of Ibn Saud were approved by the Ulema Council, which believed that only the king had the right to declare a "holy war" (jihad) and govern the state. After receiving a religious blessing from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among the tribes and urban population loyal to him and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel factions. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British in Kuwaiti territory, and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwans, tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebellious sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage on the way to the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia in 1932-1953.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was supposed not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and put an end to Hijaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of the Arabian centralized state. During the entire subsequent period of Ibn Saud's reign, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the external relations of the kingdom developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from the majority of Muslim governments, who considered the Saudi regime hostile and resented the complete control established by the Wahhabis over holy cities and hajj.

Border problems persisted in many places, especially in the south of the country. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hassan Idrisi, who in 1930 renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud, raised a rebellion against Saudi Arabia. His speech was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, there was an armed clash between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi troops. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. Hostilities were terminated after the signing of the Taif Treaty (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the government of Yemen of joining Asir, Jizan and part of Najran. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud in 1933 granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). Negotiations with Great Britain over the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Trucial Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden ended in failure.

Despite the mutual hostility that existed between the Saudi and Hashemite dynasties, in 1933 an agreement was signed with Transjordan, which put an end to years of tense enmity between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps towards normalizing relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was signed with Iraq. In the same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt, which had been severed in 1926, were restored.

In May 1933, due to the reduction in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOKAL). In March 1938, the California Arabian Standard Oil Company (CASOC, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil of California) discovered oil in El Has. Under these conditions, KASOK achieved in May 1939 a concession for the exploration and production of oil in a large part of the country's territory (commercial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented the full-scale development of the Al-Hasa oil fields, however, part of the loss of Ibn Saud's income was offset by British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with Nazi Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral until almost the end of the war (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence increased in Saudi Arabia. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the lend-lease law to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began building a trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Saida. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia allowed the construction of a large American air base in Dhahran, which the United States needed for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on the US monopoly on the development of Saudi deposits.

Oil production, which increased significantly at the end of the war, contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945, the first strike took place at the enterprises of the Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 - CASOC). The board of the company was forced to satisfy the basic demands of the workers (increasing wages, reducing working hours and providing annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946–1947, the government adopted a labor law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry was the reason for the folding of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, etc. were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement "on mutual defense and mutual assistance" was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build an air force base in Dhahran (in Al-Khas), where the headquarters of ARAMCO was located. In the same 1951, a new concession agreement was signed with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of "equal distribution of profits", deducting half of all its oil revenues to the kingdom.

Based on significantly increased resources, Ibn Saud again put forward territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO search parties began to conduct survey work. After unsuccessful negotiations with Great Britain, the military forces of Saudi Arabia occupied the oasis of Al Buraimi, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saud.

In full scale, the changes caused by huge revenues from oil exports manifested themselves already during the reign of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdul Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers headed by Saud was established. That same month, the government cracked down on a massive strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king issued laws that prohibited strikes and demonstrations and provided for the most severe punishments (up to the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transportation company, but ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, relations between Saudi Arabia and a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was the result of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostile attitude towards it from the Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the precepts of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the "Middle East Cooperation Organization" (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia concluded a defensive alliance agreement with Egypt and Syria. That same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the oasis of Al Buraimi, which had been captured by the Saudi Arabian police in 1952. An attempt by Saudi Arabia to seek UN support failed. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed in Jeddah with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia took the side of Egypt, providing a loan of 10 million dollars, and sent its troops to Jordan. November 6, 1956 Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.

In 1956, a strike of Arab workers at ARAMCO enterprises and student unrest in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

A turn in Saudi foreign policy began in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement in March 1957 with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation by Egypt and Syria of a new state - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of being involved in a plot to overthrow the Syrian government and preparing an assassination attempt on the Egyptian president. In the same 1958, relations with Iraq were practically interrupted.

Saud's huge expenses for personal needs, maintenance of the court, bribery of tribal leaders significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite annual oil revenues, by 1958 the country's debt had grown to $300 million, and the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Inefficient financial management of the kingdom and inconsistent domestic and foreign policy, the systematic intervention of the Saud in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led in 1958 to a crisis in public administration. Under pressure from members of the royal family, in March 1958, Saud was forced to transfer full executive and legislative power to the prime minister, who was appointed by his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, the reform of the state apparatus was launched. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister, the king retained only the right to sign decrees and veto. In parallel, the financial control of the government over all the income of the kingdom was established, and the expenses of the royal court were also significantly cut. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the exchange rate of the national currency and reduce the state's internal debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on the tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded members of the royal family, headed by Prince Talal ibn Abdulaziz, Saud in December 1960 regained direct control over the government and again took over as prime minister. Along with the sons of Saud, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations arise that advocate the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country's wealth in the interests of the entire population: the Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia, the Liberal Party, the Reform Party, the Front of National reforms." However, the government failed to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of the conservative traditionalist policy, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, together with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon, and then to Egypt. In the same year, in Cairo, he formed the Saudi Arabia National Liberation Front, which called for radical socialist transformations in the country and the establishment of a republic. The flight of Talal, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962, led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

For the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war with Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the deposed Imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an Egyptian attack, announced the start of a general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria belongs to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal.

In October 1962, due to the deteriorating economic situation in the country, the Cabinet of Ministers was again headed by Prince Faisal. He carried out a number of reforms in the economy, the social sphere and the field of education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, issued laws protecting the position of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Directorate of Oil and Mining Resources) was established to control the activities of foreign companies, the extraction, transportation and marketing of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. It was supposed to carry out other large-scale reforms in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, which includes representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were severely suppressed. In 1963–1964, anti-government demonstrations were suppressed in Hail and Najd. In 1964, conspiracies were uncovered in the Saudi army, which caused new repressions against "unreliable elements." Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces fighting in North Yemen meant that the king's personal expenses had to be reduced. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the council of the ulema, the powers of the king and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud the nominal ruler). Saud, who regarded this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to win the support of influential circles in order to regain power, but failed. On November 2, 1964, Saud was deposed by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. November 4, 1964 Saud signed the abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision ended a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces at home. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud, as the new heir.

Faisal declared his first priority the modernization of the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and the nation from potential internal and external threats that could interfere with the development of the kingdom. Cautiously but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health systems was developed, and national television appeared. After the death of the Grand Mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulemas, the Supreme Qadi Council, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision-Making (Fatwas), Propaganda and Leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. In the same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the offshore Abu Saafa field. In October 1968, a similar agreement was signed on the continental shelf with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni opposing sides, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military interference in the affairs of the YAR. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt has accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of the ousted Yemeni imam, and announced the suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked the bases of the Yemeni monarchists in southern Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all property owned by Saudi Arabia in Egypt. In Saudi Arabia itself, a number of terrorist attacks have been carried out against the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30,000.

The sympathy that Faisal might have felt for King Hussein of Jordan as his fellow monarch, as well as an opponent of all kinds of revolutions, Marxism and republican sentiment, was overshadowed by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. Nevertheless, in August 1965, a 40-year-old dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the third Arab-Israeli war ("Six-Day War", 1967), during which the government of Saudi Arabia declared its support for Egypt and sent its own military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, the Faisal government resorted to economic leverage: an embargo was announced on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya decided to allocate £135 million annually to the “victim states of aggression” (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the embargo on oil exports was also lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in the YAR continued until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat - the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRSY). King Faisal provided support to groups of the South Yemeni opposition that fled after 1967 to the YAR and Saudi Arabia. At the end of 1969, armed clashes erupted between the PRJ and Saudi Arabia over the oasis of Al-Wadeyah. The reason for the aggravation of the crisis was the alleged oil and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, an attempted coup d'état prepared by Air Force officers was prevented by the authorities; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and privileges eased the discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite unrest again occurred in Qatif, which were so serious that the city was blockaded for a month.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972 reinforced Faisal's fears and prompted him to try to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat".

New disputes with neighbors caused the formation in 1971 of the United United Arab Emirates(UAE). Setting a condition for its recognition of the solution of the issue of al-Buraimi, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, was it possible to remove most of the questions on the oasis of El Buraimi. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the Gulf coast.

During the Arab-Israeli war of 1973, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in military operations on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided gratuitous financial assistance to Egypt and Syria, reduced oil production and its supply to countries that supported Israel in October-December, established a (temporary) embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands in order to force them to change their policy in the Arab world. Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economy of the Arab oil-producing states. With the signing of truce agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria in 1974 (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) of US President Richard M. Nixon, relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the growth of world oil prices.

Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975–1982).

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared mentally ill and sentenced to death by decapitation. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud (1913–1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's failing health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdulaziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies, increasing spending on the development of transport, industry and education. Thanks to huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the role of the kingdom in regional politics and international economic and financial issues has increased. The treaty concluded in 1977 between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt, concluded in 1978-1979, and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia was influenced by the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979. In 1978, large anti-government demonstrations again took place in Qatif, accompanied by arrests and executions. The tension in Saudi society was openly manifested in November 1979, when armed Muslim oppositionists led by Juhayman al-Oteibi captured the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, deviation from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi forces after two weeks of fighting that killed more than 300 people. The capture of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new actions of Shiite dissidents, also suppressed by the troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced in early 1980 plans to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was not formed until 1993, and to modernize the administration in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection of its allies, the United States agreed in 1981 to sell several AWACS airborne tracking systems to Saudi Arabia, which caused a backlash in Israel, which feared the military balance in the Middle East would be upset. In the same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the establishment of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states.

On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the government of Saudi Arabia began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, and above all, in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp increase in oil export revenues - between 1973 and 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits rose from $4.3 billion to $34.5 billion.

Modern Saudi Arabia.

In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdulaziz Al Saud (b. 1928), minister of defense and aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy was in serious trouble. The decline in world demand and oil prices that began in 1981 led to a reduction in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports fell from $101 billion to $22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also declined. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions fueled by the tense foreign political situation in the region.

During the Iran-Iraq war, during which Saudi Arabia economically and politically supported the Iraqi government, Ayatollah Khomeini's followers repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tough security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that took place in Mecca in March 1987, the country's government decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people a year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25,000 Iranian pilgrims attempted to block the entrance to the Haram Mosque (Beit Ullah), fighting with security forces. More than 400 people died as a result of the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the death of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of organizing riots in support of its demand for the extraterritoriality of Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to break off diplomatic relations with Iran. Numerous terrorist attacks have been carried out against Saudi agencies abroad, most notably the offices of the national airline, Saudi Arabia. Responsibility for the killings of Saudi diplomats was claimed by the Shiite groups "Party of God in Hijaz", "Faithful Soldiers" and "Generation of Arab Anger". Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of being involved in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for committing terrorist attacks. During 1988–1991, Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. Normalization of relations with Iran occurred after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115,000 Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in the underground tunnel that connects Mecca with one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. Having completed the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began to concentrate on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia has mobilized and turned to the United States for military assistance. The Fahd government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of US and allied military forces to Saudi territory. At the same time, the country hosted approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, in order to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia increased its own oil production many times over. King Fahd personally played a huge role during the Persian Gulf War, by his influence he persuaded many Arab states to join the anti-Iraq coalition. During the Persian Gulf War (1991), the territory of Saudi Arabia was repeatedly bombarded by Iraq. At the end of January 1991, the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji were captured by Iraqi units. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle in the history of the country with enemy forces. Saudi forces participated in other combat operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.

After the Gulf War, the government of Saudi Arabia came under intense pressure from Islamic radicals who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western troops, especially American ones, from the sacred land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for increased government powers, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. Following these actions, the creation in May 1993 of the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights" followed. However, the government soon banned this organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to embark on political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted (“Fundamentals of the system of power”, “Regulations on the Advisory Council” and “The system of territorial structure”), which fixed the general principles of the state structure and government of the country. In addition to them, in September 1993, the King adopted the "Act of the establishment of the Consultative Council", according to which the members of the Consultative Council were appointed and its powers were explained. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Council took place. In the same year, the reform of the Council of Ministers and the administrative reform were announced. By royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. In the same 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces, in turn, were divided into 103 districts.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Ulema Council, an advisory body of extremely conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs was formed, consisting of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by Minister of Defense Sultan), as well as the Council for Islamic Requests and Leadership (led by the Minister of Islamic Affairs, Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq had a serious impact on the country's economy. The economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the US insisted that Saudi Arabia pay for US expenses during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for financial losses. Budget deficits and declining oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and reduce the kingdom's foreign investment. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise the price of oil in March 1994.

War on terrorism.

However, attempts at structural reforms have not been able to resolve the contradictions that have been brewing in Saudi society. Coalition troops were withdrawn from Saudi Arabia at the end of 1991; about 6 thousand American soldiers remained in the country. Their stay on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens took place in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked outside the building of the Saudi National Guard Program Office; 7 people were killed and 42 wounded. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the explosion, a new attack followed. June 25, 1996 near the US military base in Dhahran, a mined fuel truck was blown up. The explosion killed 19 American servicemen and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Movement for Islamic Change in the Arab Peninsula - Jihad Wing, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Gulf Tigers and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the Saudi government condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have voiced their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist attack after being imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional security measures for American facilities in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were subjects of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use the American military bases located on its territory for carrying out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, a debate unfolded about the role of the religious clergy, some of whose representatives spoke from openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some of the concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not comply with the norms of Islam. The government has frozen the accounts of a number of individuals and entities, including some Saudi charitable foundations. The information provided by Saudi intelligence helped to liquidate 50 companies in 25 countries through which the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda was financed.

American pressure on Saudi Arabia escalated in August 2002, when about 3,000 relatives of victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks filed suit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic funds and members of the royal family of Saudi Arabia. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, the existence of a collusion between Saudi Arabia and terrorists was alleged. All accusations from the American side were denied by the Saudi authorities; in protest against the prosecution, some Saudi investors threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the US. In November 2002, the US CIA circulated to bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi businessmen whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network al-Qaeda. This came amid demands by a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who carried out the September 11, 2001 attacks on the United States. Meanwhile, within the US administration itself, there seemed to be no consensus on how much pressure should be exerted on Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, US Secretary of State Colin Powell stressed that the US must be careful not to "break off relations with a country that has been a good partner of the US for many years and still remains a strategic partner of America."

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of supporters of reforms were getting louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding the democratization of political life, freedom of speech, independence of the judiciary, revision of the constitution, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council and the creation of civil institutions. Against the backdrop of deteriorating relations with the United States, the Saudi government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, elections to local authorities were announced, and two human rights organizations were established (one under government patronage, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. In the same year, Riyadh hosted the country's first human rights conference, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The war in Iraq (2003) caused a deep division in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's stance on US plans to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime was intransigent. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located on the territory of the kingdom for strikes against Iraq, even if these strikes were sanctioned by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for the war, the government of Saudi Arabia repeatedly made attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, in early 2003 Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the war in Iraq, the government of Saudi Arabia expressed its support for the United States, allowing coalition forces to use American airstrips and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in a conference on the reconstruction of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $ 1 billion for the restoration of a neighboring state (500 million would be project financing, and another 500 million - commodity export).

In April 2003, the US announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, as their presence was no longer needed with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong irritant that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the attack on September 11, 2001, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence of US troops in the home of Islam's holy sites, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On May 12, 2003, suicide bombers carried out four attacks in Riyadh on a complex of buildings occupied by foreigners; 34 people died and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8/9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers organized a new attack. During it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 people were injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. It is assumed that al-Qaeda was behind all the attacks. The US and other countries have once again questioned Saudi Arabia's willingness to fight terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on the issue of Saudi financing of terrorist organizations and harboring government officials involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of terrorist suspects in 2002, the country, according to international experts, still remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

King Fahd of Saudi Arabia died on August 1, 2005. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, became king, and died in January 2015.

Abdullah carried out a number of reforms in the country, in particular, he created the Supreme Court - the guarantor of the Constitution of Saudi Arabia; increased the composition of the Majlis (Consultative Council) from 81 to 150 deputies, where for the first time a woman took the high state post of Deputy Minister of Education for Women;
opened the University of Science and Technology with co-education of boys and girls; banned members of the numerous royal family from using the state treasury; carried out a state scholarship program for the education of young people in Western universities; became the first Saudi monarch to visit the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

He was succeeded by the twenty-fifth son of the country's first monarch, King Abdulazizi, Prince Salman bin Abdulaziz al-Saud.

Kirill Limanov

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General information about the country

It is located in the central part of the Arabian Peninsula. In Saudi Arabia, there are two holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina, where millions of Muslims from all over the world flock annually to carry out the pilgrimage prescribed by the Koran - the Hajj.

Most of the country is located in the zone of deserts and semi-deserts. The climate is hot and dry. Water and food resources are limited. The population of Saudi Arabia in 2015 was about 29.74 million people.

Since ancient times, the territory of the country has been the periphery of the then existing states: the empires of Mesopotamia (Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian), Seleucid Syria, Sabaean and Nabatean kingdoms. Through it were caravan roads from modern Yemen to the Mediterranean Sea. The local population, engaged in nomadic pastoralism and oasis agriculture, made money on transit trade (participation in it, collection of fees for travel and robbery).

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the British government tried to establish a state in the Hijaz headed by its ally Hussein. But he was expelled from the country by a group of Bedouin tribes - Islamic Wahhabi sectarians from Najd, led by the Saudi clan. In 1926 they proclaimed a new state - Saudi Arabia. With the help of the USSR, the new regime was able to keep the occupied territories under control.

City of Medina.

In the late 1940s, intensive oil development began, which by 1960 led to an explosive increase in the income of the Saudi ruling clan. Huge wealth allowed the rulers to raise the standard of living of the population and to modernize the economy and the army, without changing anything in the archaic theocratic system of power. The ruling clan numbers several hundred people and enjoys most of the income from oil exports. Saudi Arabia led the international oil cartel - OPEC.

The oil industry and other manufacturing industries employ hundreds of thousands of foreign workers who do not have civil rights in the country. Own population receives social benefits from the government. The rulers of Saudi Arabia see themselves as the protectors and bulwarks of Islam; religious law in the country sharia. The laws of the country are still based on extreme forms of Islamic law, restricting the rights of women and any other faiths, including Muslims of other persuasions, except for the ruling one. Slavery has been officially abolished in the most recent times, but in fact it is practiced at the beginning of the 21st century.

The army and security services of Saudi Arabia are equipped with the most modern weapons. Wealth allows the country's authorities to encourage young people to study in the most advanced educational institutions of the West and to innovate in the field of technology. Saudi investments are present in key sectors of the global economy. The country has carried out economic diversification; branches of industry and agriculture that are not related to oil are developing. For example, potatoes from Saudi Arabia are exported to Russia and Ukraine.

The political position of Saudi Arabia with a claim to leadership in the Arab and Muslim world and the leadership of the oil market has led it to several conflicts. Saudi Arabia's competitor for leadership in the Arab world has been and remains Egypt, with which a war was waged in Yemen in 1962-1967. In the Islamic world, the position of Saudi Arabia seeks to oust Iran (claiming to expand its possessions in the Persian Gulf). In the eastern regions of the country, where the bulk of Saudi oil is produced, the population - both Saudi and foreign workers - are mostly Shiites, subject to religious oppression and inclined to support Iran.

Despite the formal alliance of the Saudi authorities with the United States, the entire ideological system of the country is aimed at conflict with the Western world, including the military-terrorist one. jihad. The Saudi authorities finance and encourage the activities of extreme Islamist groups around the world, including terrorists (for example, Hamas). Private and public organizations in the country, not formally affiliated with the government, go even further in the same direction.

The presence in the country of groups trying to overthrow the ruling regime leads to the constant danger of internal conflicts. Almost all of these groups are even more radical Islamists than the country's official religious authorities.

Saudi Arabia's anti-Israel stance

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, Saudi Arabia has been among the most implacable opponents of the Jewish state, generously funded anti-Israeli terror, anti-Israeli and anti-Semitic propaganda. Jews were banned from entering Saudi Arabia; official guests and diplomats were given copies of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion (for more on Saudi Arabia's attitude towards Israel, see The State of Israel. Israel and the Arab World).

In 1991, Saudi Arabia acted as one of the most active participants in the anti-Iraqi coalition in the Persian Gulf War. This reinforced Saudi Arabia's traditional reliance on the United States, which constantly influenced the country's rulers to take a more moderate stance towards Israel. This also met the vital interests of the Saudi regime, which feared destabilization in the Middle East and the actions of radical regimes and movements in the Arab world.

In the 2010s, against the backdrop of a general crisis in the Middle East (see below), opportunities for cooperation between Saudi Arabia and Israel emerged. Parts of the Saudi authorities have realized that radical Islamists are a danger to them, but Israel is not, and that they no longer have the opportunity to attack Israel. Israeli diplomacy is making efforts to establish undisclosed ties with the Saudi leadership.

Events of the beginning of the XXI century

The Islamic terrorist organizations associated with the al-Qaeda movement were less and less controlled by the royal government, turning into contenders for the seizure of power. The ruling circles are forced to fight with them, as well as with the Shiite terrorists supported by Iran. At the same time, the administration of US President Barack Obama has taken a course of abandoning the alliance with Saudi Arabia and attempting to reorient itself towards Iran.

Saudi Arabia is trying to prevent the growth of shale oil production in the US and other countries of the world. To do this, it increases the export of its own oil, causing prices to fall on the world market. As a result of falling oil prices, the income of the Saudi royal court is declining. At the same time, the population is growing rapidly, which creates difficulties in maintaining the established level of well-being of the population.

The 2010s saw increased military pressure on Saudi Arabia from Iranian-backed Shia Islamist groups. In 2013, Shia extremists in

Saudi Arabia, the map of which is presented below, is a country in the southwestern part of Asia, covering about 80% of the area. The origin of its name is associated with the Saudi royal family, which founded the state and continues to rule it to this day.

general description

The area of ​​Saudi Arabia is 2.15 million square kilometers. The state borders on Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, UAE, Qatar, Yemen and Oman. In addition, it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. Its capital is Riyadh, which is home to over five million people. Other major cities in Saudi Arabia are Jeddah, Mecca and Medina. Their population exceeds one million people.

Political structure

In March 1992, the first documents regulating the state and the basic principles of its management were adopted. Based on them, the country of Saudi Arabia is a theocratic absolute monarchy. Its constitution is based on the Koran. The Saudi dynasty has been in power since 1932. The King has full legislative, executive and judicial power. Its powers are only theoretically limited by local traditions and Shariah norms. The government in its current form has been functioning since 1953. It is headed by the king, who determines the main directions of its activities. There is also a Council of Ministers in the country, which is entrusted not only with executive, but also with legislative functions. All decisions taken by this authority are approved by decree of the king of the country of Saudi Arabia. The population of the state is obliged to comply with them. Administratively, the country is divided into thirteen provinces.

Economy

The local economy is based on private free enterprise. At the same time, it is impossible not to note the fact that control over the key ones is carried out by the government. The state boasts the largest oil reserves on the planet. It accounts for about 75% of his income. In addition, Saudi Arabia is the world leader in the export of black gold and plays one of the leading roles in OPEC. The country also has reserves of zinc, chromium, lead, copper and

Population

The first census of local residents was carried out in 1974. From that time to the present day, the population of Saudi Arabia has almost tripled. Now almost 30 million people live in the country. The vast majority of local residents are Arabs, a significant part of which has retained the tribal organization. Now there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country. It should also be noted that approximately one-fifth of the population is made up of foreign workers. Based on official UN statistics, as of 1970, the infant mortality rate in the country was 204 babies for every thousand newborns. Now there has been a significant positive shift in this indicator. In particular, due to the improvement of living standards and medical care in the state, out of a thousand newborns, only 19 children die.

Language

Arabic is the official language in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population in everyday life uses mainly the Arabian dialect, which comes from el-fushy. Within it, several dialects that are close to each other stand out at once. At the same time, city dwellers and descendants of nomads speak differently. Literary and spoken languages ​​have minor differences between themselves. In a religious context, mainly the classical Arabic dialect is used. Common languages ​​among immigrants from other countries are English, Indonesian, Urdu, Tagalog, Farsi and others.

Religion

Saudi Arabia is considered the center of the Islamic world. Almost the entire population of the country professes this particular religion. According to various estimates, up to 93% of local residents are Sunnis. The rest of the representatives of Islam are predominantly Shiites. As for other religions, about 3% of the country's inhabitants are Christians, and 0.4% are other confessions.

Education

Higher education in the country, although free, is not compulsory. A good job and a comfortable life in Saudi Arabia are possible without him. Be that as it may, there are a number of programs operating here, the main goal of which was to reduce the level of illiteracy of local residents. Currently, there are 7 universities and 16 higher educational institutions in the country. All of them are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education. Approximately 30 thousand students study abroad every year. In the past few decades, the government has significantly increased spending on education. At the same time, the state needs a general reform in this area, which should form a new balance between modern and traditional teaching methods.

The medicine

Saudi Arabia is one of the most advanced countries in the world in terms of medicine. The population of the state has the right to receive free services related to it. This applies to both residents of megacities and representatives of the Bedouin tribes who roam in the desert. Every year, the government allocates about 8% of the local budget for health care, which is simply a gigantic amount. Mandatory immunization of newborns is fixed at the legislative level. The epidemiological control system, which was created in 1986, made it possible to completely defeat and eliminate such terrible diseases as plague and cholera.

Demographic Issues

According to scientists, if the current number of inhabitants in the country continues (over the past 30 years they have been about 4% of the inhabitants per year), then by 2050 the population of Saudi Arabia will reach 45 million. In other words, very soon the country's leadership will have to solve the problem of not only providing citizens with jobs, but also ensuring a decent old age for the Saudis who are currently working. This task is not so easy even for a state with such impressive oil reserves. The emergence of such problems is associated primarily with positive changes in the areas of nutrition and medical care, as well as with the improvement of living conditions in the country.

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed and at the same time the most visited states in the world. It is located on the Arabian Peninsula, where it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Until recently, the kingdom developed mainly religious pilgrimage, but in recent years, active work has been carried out to introduce tourist visas.

General information about Saudi Arabia

This country surprisingly combines highly developed technologies and Islamic ones. It is Islam that is the official religion of Saudi Arabia and has a direct impact on all aspects of its life. Even the constitution of the country was written in strict accordance with the sunnahs of the scripture. By the way, the constitution also states that the official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic.

The area of ​​Saudi Arabia is more than 2 million square meters. km. Thanks to this, it is included in the top 20 largest countries in the world. Despite such territory, its population density is relatively low. So, as of 2017, the population of Saudi Arabia is just over 33 million people. Of these, 55.2% are men and 44.8% are women.

The official currency of Saudi Arabia is the Saudi riyal, or riyal. The current king is depicted on the banknotes.

The ISO code for Saudi Arabia is SA. This means that the country is a member of the UN organization and its specialized agencies.

Geolocation

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula, occupying 80% of its territory. On the rest, Yemen, Iraq and Syria are located.

Due to the fact that the country occupies a border position between Africa and Eurasia, many still have difficulty determining its location. Some tourists find it difficult to answer the question of where Saudi Arabia is located on the world map. Turning the globe, you can see that the kingdom is located neatly between two continents. For those who do not know which continent Saudi Arabia is located on, it will be interesting to know that this is Eurasia. The country occupies a border position between Africa and continental Asia.

Climate and nature of Saudi Arabia

The country is located about 2000 km from the equator, but, nevertheless, its influence is very noticeable here. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is characterized by both tropical, subtropical and sharply continental climate. The average air temperature in July is +38°C, and in January - +22°C.

The boundary geographic position of Saudi Arabia and proximity to the equator have led to the fact that there are many deserts on its territory, which are united in one name - the Great Deserts. Seasonal winds (simum, khamsin, shemal) and sandstorms dominate here. The average annual rainfall is 70-100 mm.

Many travelers are interested in how many rivers there are in Saudi Arabia. There are no permanent sources in the country. Rivers form after heavy rains and dry up after a while.

State system and symbols of Saudi Arabia

The kingdom is known not only for Muslim shrines. Until 1928, there was a tomb in Saudi Arabia, in which the first woman on Earth was supposedly buried. Religious authorities destroyed and concreted the burial. In 2015, the Ark of Gabriel was found in Saudi Arabia. When trying to dig it, 4,000 people died. Some blame this on plasma emission, others on crush.

Saudi Arabia Hotels

Until recently, the entire tourism industry of the country was aimed at serving religious pilgrims. It was on them that everyone and were oriented. Despite the narrow target audience, the country has a wide variety of options for living. The most famous hotels are:

• Radisson Blu in Riyadh;
• Raffles Makkah Palace in Mecca;
• Crowne Plaza in Jeddah;
• Mövenpick Hotel in Medina.

More or less secular conditions can be expected in Jeddah. This city of Saudi Arabia has excellent conditions for a holiday on the Red Sea. The level of service here meets all European standards.

In order to develop the tourism sector in Saudi Arabia, the world's tallest hotel, The Abraj Kudai, will soon open. It will consist of twelve 45-story towers with 10,000 rooms, 70 restaurants and 5 helipads.

Restaurants and Cuisine of Saudi Arabia

The culinary traditions of the kingdom developed under the influence of natural and climatic conditions and the customs of Islam. For the most part, the cuisine of Saudi Arabia is similar to the cuisines of other countries in the Middle East. Her recipes are based on the use of lamb and chicken, rice and a huge amount of seasonings. Pork is not eaten in the country, and all other types of meat are prepared in strict accordance with Halal. A big role in local feasts is given to tea, coffee and various sweets.

You can appreciate the color and variety in the best restaurants:

• The Ritz-Carlton in Riyadh;
• Pullman Zamzam in Mecca;
• Le Méridien in the Medina;
• Belajio in Jeddah.

In accordance with the laws of Saudi Arabia, drinking alcohol is prohibited here.

Public life

The Kingdom has 25% of the world's oil reserves, therefore it is one of the largest exporters of raw materials on the world stage. This significantly affects the standard of living in Saudi Arabia. VAT here is only 5%, and any local can take absolutely interest-free loan. But the market system is deprived of a large part of the working population - women. In general, the rights of the fairer sex, or rather their absence, still excites the inhabitants of the Western world. The head of state of Saudi Arabia determines how the inhabitants of the country should look. For a long time they had to wear a black abaya, covering from the eyes of unfamiliar men, and only in March 2018 this requirement was left in the past.

The country has a low crime rate. According to the customs of Saudi Arabia, public order is maintained by representatives of the Sharia police. However, since 2016, her rights have been significantly curtailed.

The culture of Saudi Arabia has developed and continues to develop in accordance with the traditions of Islam. It is forbidden to build Christian churches, Jewish synagogues and Buddhist temples. Five times a day, a devout Muslim is obliged to perform the prayer to which the muezzin calls.

Transport Saudi Arabia

The country is one of the world's largest oil suppliers, which has affected all sectors of its industry. Saudi Arabia is characterized by a high level of automotive development. The total length of all its roads is almost 222,000 km.

There are 208 in total in Saudi Arabia. Six of them have international status. These are the airports:

• King Fahd in Em Dammam;
• King Abdulaziz in Jeddah;
• King Khalid in Riyadh;
• Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz in Medina;
• Al Asa in Al Hofuf;
• Prince Abdul Mohsin bin Abdulaziz in Yanbu.

The length of the railways of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is several hundred kilometers. A 440 km branch line is currently under construction, which will connect Mecca and Medina. Public transport in the country is underdeveloped. Inside the cities of Saudi Arabia, it is easier to travel by taxi.

How to get to Saudi Arabia?

Until now, the country's air gates have been open only for charter flights with pilgrims. They are carried out by Royal Jordanian and Qatar Airways, whose planes fly three times a week. In addition, many airlines in the world (Lufthansa, Turkish Airlines, Alitalia, KLM, Air Canada) send regular flights here, and from 2018 it will be possible to fly to Saudi Arabia from Russia.

From Egypt, Sudan, Iran and Eritrea, you can get to the economic capital of Saudi Arabia, Jeddah, by ferry. They depart from Suez, Port Sudan, Em Dammam and Massawa.

With all neighboring states, except Iraq, Saudi Arabia is connected by regular bus service. Approximately 5-7 buses per day come from Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait. Minibuses from Oman and Jordan also travel through the UAE.

Citizens of Russia and the CIS countries need to enter Saudi Arabia. You can enter the country on a guest, transit, student, work, business and tourist visa. There are also such types of visas as pilgrimage (for Hajj or Omra) and for permanent residence.

The state of Saudi Arabia was born on September 23, 1932. In 1926, Abdul al-Aziz from the Saud family united the regions of Najd and Hejaz and founded the Kingdom of Najd and Hejaz, in 1932, after the conquest of Asir and the strengthening of positions in Al Has and Qatif, the country became known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Modern Saudi Arabia is also sometimes referred to as the Third Saudi State, thus distinguishing it from the First and Second Saudi States, which lasted from 1744 to 1813 and from 1824 to 1891, respectively.

Oil map

Saudi Arabia is a real oil barrel. The export of this raw material provides 90% of the country's export earnings, 75% of budget revenues and 45% of the state's GDP. Oil has become for Saudi Arabia not only the main product that boosts the country's economy, but also a serious geopolitical trump card.

Colossal oil reserves were discovered here in 1938, but due to the Second World War, large-scale development had to be postponed. The United States has had its share in the Arab commodity business since 1933, and the Standard Oil Company of California operated in Saudi Arabia.

Without waiting for the end of the war, US President Franklin Roosevelt in February 1945, after the end of the Yalta Conference, held a meeting with Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud. The talks were held aboard the USS Quincy in the Suez Canal. Then the so-called "Quincy Pact" was concluded, according to which the monopoly on exploration and development of oil was transferred to the United States. Roosevelt, in turn, promised the Saudis protection from external threats.

Oil made Saudi Arabia the richest state in its region, Abdul-Aziz by 1952 had a personal fortune of about $ 200 million. The United States, in turn, received a good lever of influence on the oil market.

Rights of women and men

When it comes to Saudi Arabia, always remember the strict Sharia law. Women there are severely restricted in their rights. So, in Saudi Arabia, a woman is not recommended to appear outside the house without being accompanied by a male mahram (relative, husband), she is forbidden to communicate with other men if they are not a mahram. In 2009, the brothers publicly shot two of their sisters for talking to other men, and in 2007, a father personally executed his daughter for talking to a stranger on Facebook.

Women in Saudi Arabia are required to wear black abayas everywhere, and in 2011 the religious police also began requiring women to close their eyes in public places as they might be too sexy. Men in Saudi Arabia must protect the honor of the family and the honor of their women. There is such a thing as "namus" or "sharaf", which translates as honor. Observing namus, a man himself can determine the punishment for a woman who has violated ird - the rules of female piety.

To be fair, it must be said that segregation in Saudi Arabia applies to both women and men. Single men are limited in their rights no less than women. All public places are divided into two parts - for families (read "for women") and for men. In most places, the entrance for single men is in principle ordered, therefore, socially, they are oppressed in their rights no less than women. Women in Saudi Arabia are fighting for their rights and have already achieved success in this matter, they can even hold political positions.

executions

The Saudi legal system is based on Sharia norms, the death penalty in the country is provided for premeditated murder, armed robbery, homosexuality, extramarital (premarital) affairs, religious apostasy, violent acts of a sexual nature, the creation of opposition groups to the authorities.

The observance of the norms of Sharia law is controlled by the religious police - mutavva, which is also called the Sharia guard. She reports to the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice.

For various crimes, Sharia norms establish various punishments - from blows and stoning to beheading.

The right to execute execution in Saudi Arabia is considered honorable, there are still several dynasties of executioners in the country, this skill is inherited. In 2013, Saudi Arabia faced a shortage of personnel, sword bearers are now becoming less and less, so the forms of execution have also changed.

Mecca and Medina

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed countries in the world. Staying in the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina for non-Muslims is strictly prohibited by law. You can get to these cities only in groups of pilgrims performing the Hajj. In history, however, there were cases of violation of these prohibitions.

The first known non-Muslim to visit Mecca was the Italian traveler from Bologna, Ludovico de Vertema, who visited Mecca in 1503. Another non-Muslim who visited Mecca was Sir Richard Francis Burton. In the middle of the 19th century, he made a hajj from Afghanistan under an assumed name.

A few facts

There are no rivers in Saudi Arabia. Water here is more expensive than gasoline. Magic is officially banned in Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia, there are nesting dolls for sale, but they are made in accordance with the norms - women in abayas, men in tobi and gutri. In Saudi Arabia, the Islamic calendar is adopted, now it is 1436 Hijri. Favorite sport is football, the national team has been the champion of Asia three times. Getting a visa is not so easy, especially if there are marks in the passport about visiting Israel.