I will solve the exam in biology the mechanisms of evolution. Causes of biological progress and regression. Human races, their genetic relationship

1 the first evolutionary theory was created J.B. Lamarck... He mistakenly believed that the main factor of evolution was the direct influence of the environment; inheritance of traits acquired by organisms under the influence of the environment. He considered the "striving of organisms to progress" as the driving force of evolution.

Lamarck introduced the division of animals into vertebrates and invertebrates. The connecting link between them is lancelet.

2. The foundations of scientific systematics were laid K. Linney... He introduced the binomial (double) name of the species (Nr .: Apple-tree forest). But Linnaeus's taxonomy was artificial. Modern taxonomy takes into account the signs of the relationship of species and therefore is called natural.

3. Evidence for evolution: 1) Paleontological (fossil remains) 2) Embryological: Karl Baer formulated embryo similarity law . Haeckel opened biogenetic law : ontogeny is a brief repetition of phylogeny. 3) Comparative anatomical (rudiments, atavisms, homologous and similar organs). Atavisms - tailed man, hairy man, multi-nipple. Rudiments - third human eyelids, appendix.

4. Malthus proved that species reproduce in a geometric progression, and the conditions for their existence only according to arithmetic. (This gives rise to a struggle for existence).

5Charles Darwin - the creator of the basics modern theory of evolution organic world. He opened driving forces of evolution, formulated the principle of divergence of signs (divergence).

Driving Factors of Evolution: hereditary variability (mutations), struggle for existence (intra-, interspecific and with unfavorable conditions environment), natural selection (driving, stabilizing, disruptive), isolation (ecological, geographic), migration, population waves, gene drift.

The main guiding factor of evolution is natural selection .

By the "struggle for existence" Darwin understood all kinds of relationships between organisms, as well as between organisms and environmental conditions.

Inconsistency between the possibility of a species for unlimited reproduction and limited resources is the main reason for the struggle for existence. The intraspecific struggle is the most intense, since individuals of the same species have all the same needs.

Evolutionary changes occurring at the population, intraspecific level are called microevolution. As a result of microevolution, new species are formed (speciation).

Speciation forms: geographic and ecological.

Macroevolution - supraspecific evolution, leads to the formation of new genera, families, etc.

Macroevolution, like microevolution, is of a divergent character.

The phylogenetic series of horses was recreated by Kovalevsky.

The discovery and study of the lancelet proved the origin of vertebrates from invertebrates, their relationship.

Evolution results: variety of species, speciation, fitness .

Gene drift is a change in the frequency of a gene in a population under the influence of random causes.

Fluctuations in the number of individuals that make up a population are called population waves.

As a result of population waves, rare genes may become frequent or disappear.

Adaptability, diversity of species, speciation are the result of the interaction of the driving forces of evolution. Any device it is the result of the action of the driving forces of evolution (hereditary variability, struggle for existence, natural selection, isolation).

Mimicry is an imitation of a less protected organism of one kind of a more protected organism of another kind. (Nr. Some types of flies look like wasps)

All adaptations are relative, i.e. they help the body to survive only in these specific conditions.

Gene pool - the totality of all genes contained in a population or species.

The more offspring and the more often there is a change of generations, the better the species adapts to changing environmental conditions.

6. Relatively isolated groups of individuals of the same species are called populations.

The existence of a species in the form of populations allows the species to adapt to life in different conditions of existence.

Population is the smallest subdivision of a species that changes over time. Therefore, a population is an elementary unit of evolution. Darwin mistakenly considered the individual to be the elementary unit of evolution.

A population is both a unit of evolution, a structural unit of a species and a unit of an ecosystem.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe saturation of populations with recessive mutations was first expressed by S.S. Chetverikov.

7.View criteria... There is no absolute criterion. The belonging of individuals to a particular species is determined by a set of criteria (morphological, physiological, genetic, historical, geographical, ecological). Food is an ecological criterion.

8.Biological progress characterized by an expansion of the range, an increase in the number of populations and individuals of the species. Biological progress can be achieved by all three main directions of evolution: aromorphoses, idioadaptations and general degenerations.

Biological regression characterized by a narrowing of the range, a decrease in the number of individuals and populations.

Aromorphoses - major evolutionary changes that lead to a general rise in the level of organization, increase the intensity of life. (Nr .: The appearance for the first time in the process of evolution of viviparity, constant body temperature, pulmonary respiration; in plants, the appearance of a flower, seed, vascular system, etc.) By aromorphosis, large systematic categories arise in the process of evolution, rank higher than the family.

Idioadaptation - minor evolutionary changes that increase the adaptability of organisms to certain environmental conditions, but are not accompanied by a change in the main features of the organization. (E.g. protective coloration of animals, seed spreading devices). Species, genera, families in the process of evolution arise through idioadaptation.

9.Anological organs are called having different origins, but performing identical functions... (This is the result of convergence - the convergence of features). Ref .: bird wings and insect wings.

Homologous organs are of the same origin, but perform different functions... (This is the result of divergence - divergence of signs). Ref .: human hand, wings of a bird, burrowing limbs of a mole, flippers of a seal.

10. To which group of evidence of evolution do atavisms and rudiments belong? (embryonic, paleontological, comparative anatomical, biogeographic)

Insert the missing terms from the proposed list into the text "Lamarckism" using numerical designations. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) into the table below. LAMARKISM

Lamarckism is an evolutionary concept based on a theory put forward at the beginning of the 19th century _________ (A) in the treatise "Philosophy of Zoology".

In a broad sense, Lamarckian refers to various evolutionary theories that arose in the 19th - first third of the 20th centuries, in which the internal desire for __________ (C) is considered as the main ____________ (B) force of evolution. As a rule, great importance in such theories is attached to the influence of __________ (D) organs on the evolutionary fate of organisms, since it is assumed that the consequences of exercise and non-exercise can be transmitted through _________________ (D).

LIST OF TERMS:

1) stabilizing

2) driving

3) inheritance

4) exercise

5) progress

Explanation.

Lamarckism is an evolutionary concept based on the theory put forward at the beginning of the 19th century by Lamarck in his treatise The Philosophy of Zoology.

In a broad sense, various evolutionary theories that arose in the 19th - first third of the 20th centuries, in which the internal desire for progress is considered as the main driving force of evolution, are referred to as Lamarckian. As a rule, great importance in such theories is attached to the influence of organ exercise on the evolutionary fate of organisms, since it is assumed that the consequences of exercise and non-exercise can be inherited.

Answer: 62543.

Answer: 62543

Source: RESHU OGE

Insert in the text "Darwinism" the missing terms from the proposed list, using the numerical designations. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) into the table below.

DARWINISM

Darwinism - named after the English naturalist _________ (A) - is the direction of evolutionary thought, the adherents of which agree with the main ideas of Darwin on the issue of evolution, according to which the main ___________ (B) of evolution is _______________ (C) selection. In a broad sense, it is often (and not entirely correctly) used to denote evolutionary doctrine or evolutionary biology in general. Darwinism is opposed to the ideas of ____________ (D) who believed that the main driving force of evolution is the inherent tendency of organisms to _____________ (D).

LIST OF TERMS:

1) property

3) perfection

4) artificial

5) natural

Write down the numbers in the answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Darwinism - named after the English naturalist Darwin - is a branch of evolutionary thought whose adherents agree with Darwin's main ideas on the issue of evolution, according to which natural selection is the main factor of evolution. In a broad sense, it is often (and not entirely correctly) used to denote evolutionary doctrine or evolutionary biology in general. Darwinism is opposed to the ideas of Lamarck, who believed that the main driving force of evolution is the desire for perfection inherent in organisms.

Answer: 82563.

Answer: 82563

Source: RESHU OGE

1) the theory of transformism

2) Lamarck's evolutionary theory

3) Darwin's evolutionary teaching

4) the theory of creationism

5) synthetic theory of evolution

Explanation.

The theory of creationism - the theory of transformism - the evolutionary theory of Lamarck - the evolutionary doctrine of Darwin - the synthetic theory of evolution. Transformism is the doctrine of the continuous change of the species of the animal and plant kingdom and the origin of the forms of the organic world from one or more of the simplest forms.

Answer: 41235.

Establish a correspondence between the features of the evolutionary factor and the factors for which these features are characteristic.

Write down the numbers in the answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Population waves: one of the sources of evolutionary material; represents fluctuations in the number of populations, is random. Natural selection: the action of the factor is directed; provides selection of genotypes; changes the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of the population.

Answer: 112212.

Note.

Population waves or waves of life (S.S.Chetverikov) are called periodic or aperiodic fluctuations in the number of organisms in natural populations. This phenomenon applies to all types of animals and plants, as well as microorganisms. The reasons for the fluctuations are often ecological in nature. Thus, the size of the “prey” (hare) populations grows when the pressure on them from the “predator” populations (lynx, fox, wolf) decreases. An increase in food resources noted in this case contributes to an increase in the number of predators, which, in turn, intensifies the extermination of prey. Population gene pools change both on the rise and fall of the population wave.

a guest 08.06.2014 20:32

Allele frequencies in the gene pool of a population are altered by both population waves (undirectedly, can lead to gene drift) and natural selection (directed, leading to the formation of adaptations, etc.).

a guest 09.06.2014 00:19

It was incorrect to give item "E", since both population waves and natural selection alter the frequency of alleles in the population, i.e. her gene pool. Population waves change the gene pool in an undirected manner, due to gene drift during population decline, for example. As a result, any alleles can be fixed, regardless of their adaptive value. Incl. and harmful. And natural selection contributes to the accumulation of genes and gene complexes that ensure success in the struggle for existence, which leads to the emergence of adaptations, etc.

Alena Selezneva 13.06.2018 06:11

Population waves, like natural selection, change the frequency of alleles in the gene pool of the population (point E), why do you consider natural selection to be the correct answer, please explain

Natalya Evgenievna Bashtannik

Because it is more complete.

Insert in the text "Evolutionary doctrine" the missing terms from the proposed list, using numbers for this. Write down the numbers of the selected answers in the text, and then enter the resulting sequence of numbers (according to the text) into the table below.

EVOLUTIONARY TEACHING

The founder of modern evolutionary doctrine was ________ (A). Before him, ideas about the changeability of the world had already been expressed. However, it was Darwin who taught about ________ (B) and the survival of the organisms most adapted to ________ (C). Charles Darwin and at the same time Alfred Wallace explained the reasons for the emergence of the ________ (D) organic world.

LIST OF TERMS:

1) variety

2) Charles Darwin

3) natural selection

4) fitness

5) creation of the world

6) environmental conditions

7) spontaneous generation

Write down the numbers in the answer, arranging them in the order corresponding to the letters:

Explanation.

Charles Darwin was the founder of modern evolutionary teaching. Before him, ideas about the changeability of the world had already been expressed. However, it was Darwin who taught about the natural selection and survival of organisms most adapted to environmental conditions. Charles Darwin and at the same time Alfred Wallace explained the reasons for the emergence of the diversity of the organic world.

Answer: 2361.

Answer: 2361

Source: RESHU OGE

1. The first evolutionary concept belongs to Zh.B. Lamarck. 2. Lamarck was the first to put forward the idea of \u200b\u200bthe variability of living nature and its natural development. 3. He was the first to recognize natural selection and the direct influence of the environment on the organism as the driving forces of evolution. 4. In the middle of the 19th century, the English scientist Charles Darwin created an evolutionary doctrine, in which he called indefinite variability, the struggle for the existence and inheritance of acquired traits as the driving forces of evolution. 5. Charles Darwin in his doctrine argued that the formation of new species is based on the gradual accumulation of differences between individuals - the convergence of characters. 6. The results of evolution C. Darwin considered the diversity of species and the relative fitness of organisms.

Explanation.

Errors are contained in sentences 3, 4, 5.

1) 3 - the theory of natural selection was created by Charles Darwin;

2) 4 - the idea of \u200b\u200binheritance of acquired characteristics belongs to JB Lamarck;

3) 5 - Divergence is the cornerstone of evolutionary processes.

The accumulation of differences between individuals is not called convergence.

J. B. Lamarck in his teaching did not speak about the changeability of living nature. He talked about the variability of some species, and the speculatively established variability. For which he was criticized by the biologists of that time. The narrowness of his views and the paucity of the empirical base were even ridiculed among scientists.

It is necessary to make adjustments to the proposal so as not to embarrass the deciding ones. In fact - 4 incorrect sentences out of six

Natalya Evgenievna Bashtannik

It is possible, if you correct 4 sentences without admitting biological errors, then it will be evaluated by 3 points

Select statements related to the synthetic theory of evolution.

1) Microevolution is a process that occurs in populations.

2) There is a struggle for existence between organisms.

3) The driving forces of evolution are indefinite variability, natural selection, the struggle for existence.

4) The main evolutionary directions are: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration.

5) Certain variability is not hereditary.

6) The species consists of populations.

Explanation.

The main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution in general terms can be expressed as follows:

The material for evolution is hereditary changes - mutations (usually genetic) and their combinations.

According to STE, the driving forces of evolution include the mutational process, population waves, gene drift, isolation and natural selection. All of them, with the exception of natural selection, act randomly, not directed.

The smallest unit of evolution is the population.

Evolution is, in most cases, divergent, i.e. one taxon can become the ancestor of several daughter taxa.

Evolution is gradual and long-term. Speciation as a stage in the evolutionary process is a sequential replacement of one temporary population by a succession of subsequent temporary populations.

The species consists of many subordinate, morphologically, physiologically, ecologically, biochemically and genetically distinct, but reproductively not isolated units - subspecies and populations.

The species exists as an integral and closed formation. The integrity of the species is maintained by migrations of individuals from one population to another, in which there is an exchange of alleles ("gene flow"),

Macroevolution at a higher level than a species (genus, family, order, class, etc.) proceeds by way of microevolution. According to the synthetic theory of evolution, there are no laws of macroevolution that differ from microevolution. In other words, the evolution of groups of species of living organisms is characterized by the same prerequisites and driving forces as for microevolution.

Any real (and not collective) taxon has a monophyletic origin. Evolution has an undirected character, that is, it does not go in the direction of any final goal.

Correct statements: microevolution is a process that occurs in populations; the main evolutionary directions (according to AN Severtsov) are: aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration; a species consists of populations. Incorrect statements:

2) There is a struggle for existence between organisms - it is wrong, since the struggle for existence can be both interspecific and intraspecific and with unfavorable conditions.

3) The driving forces of evolution are indefinite variability, natural selection, the struggle for existence - these are the driving forces of evolution according to Darwin.

5) Certain variability is not hereditary - Certain, or group, modification variability is variability that occurs under the influence of some environmental factor that acts equally on all individuals - the statement is not true, since it is not a factor of evolution.

Answer: 146.

Answer: 146

1) the emergence of organisms on land

2) the occurrence of photosynthesis

3) formation of the ozone screen

4) formation of coacervates in water

5) the emergence of cellular life forms

Explanation.

Evolutionary processes on Earth in chronological order: the formation of coacervates in water → the emergence of cellular life forms → the emergence of photosynthesis → the formation of the ozone screen → the emergence of organisms on land.

Answer: 45231.

Answer: 45231

Source: Demo version of the USE-2015 in biology.

Natalya Evgenievna Bashtannik

Coacervate drops - clots like aqueous solutions gelatin. Formed in concentrated solutions of proteins and nucleic acids. Coacervates are capable of adsorbing various substances. From the solution they receive chemical compounds, which are converted as a result of reactions taking place in coacervate drops, and are released into the environment.

Find errors in the text given. Indicate the numbers of the sentences in which they are allowed, correct them.

According to the main provisions of the synthetic theory of evolution: 1. The material for evolution is hereditary variability, that is, mutations and combinations of genes. 2. The driving forces of evolution are the change in the gene pool of the population and the emergence of the adaptation of organisms to the conditions of existence. 3. The directing factor of evolution is natural selection based on the preservation and accumulation of hereditary changes in the organism. 4. The smallest evolutionary unit is a species. 5. Evolution is gradual and long-term. 6. Speciation as a stage of evolution is called macroevolution.

Explanation.

Errors were made in sentences:

1) 2 - Mutation process, combinative variability, population waves, natural selection - the driving forces of evolution.

2) 4 - The smallest evolutionary unit is the population.

3) 6 - Speciation as a stage of evolution is called microevolution.

Georgy Granin 16.03.2018 13:51

Or you can correct the 2nd sentence as follows: 2. The driving forces of evolution are the struggle for existence, isolation, gene drift, hereditary variability, population waves, natural selection.

Natalya Evgenievna Bashtannik

Find three mistakes in the above text. Indicate the numbers of sentences in which mistakes were made, correct them.

(1) Darwin identified three undirected evolutionary factors: heredity, variability, population waves. (2) Heredity determines the ability of organisms to pass on their characteristics to offspring.

(3) Variability determines the diversity of forms in a population. (4) As a result, all individuals have different fitness. (5) The fittest leave fewer offspring because they live longer. (6) As a result of natural selection, the offspring in each subsequent generation is increasingly adaptable to environmental conditions. (7) Mutations are also important, they always increase the adaptability of the population to environmental conditions.

Explanation.

1) 1 - evolutionary factors according to Darwin are heredity, variability and the struggle for existence;

2) 5 - the fittest live longer and leave more offspring;

3) 7 - mutations are positive, negative and neutral (mutations often have a negative effect)

(1) The synthetic theory of evolution states that species live in populations in which evolutionary processes begin. (2) It is in populations that the most acute struggle for existence is observed. (3) As a result of mutational variability, new signs gradually appear, including adaptation to environmental conditions - idioadaptation. (4) This process of the gradual appearance and maintenance of new traits under the influence of natural selection, leading to the formation of new species, is called divergence. (5) The formation of new large taxa occurs through aromorphoses and degeneration, which also leads to the biological progress of organisms. (6) Thus, the population is the initial unit in which the main evolutionary processes take place - a change in the gene pool, the emergence of new characters, the emergence of adaptations.

Explanation.

It is necessary to choose three sentences that indicate the driving forces of evolution. The main driving forces of evolution are hereditary variability, natural selection and the struggle for existence.

(2) It is in populations that the most acute struggle for existence is observed. (3) As a result of mutational variability, new signs gradually appear, including adaptation to environmental conditions - idioadaptation. (4) This process of the gradual appearance and maintenance of new traits under the influence of natural selection, leading to the formation of new species, is called divergence.

Answer: 234.

Answer: 234

1) cytology

2) evolutionary teaching

3) ecology

4) taxonomy

Explanation.

A - the science of the cell, ecology - the science of the relationship of organisms with the environment, systematics - the science of the classification of organisms.

Answer: 2

Explanation.

1) Confirmed and proved the historical development of living nature,

2) variability of species,

3) the common origin of living organisms.

Section: Fundamentals of Evolutionary Teaching

View, its criteria. A population is a structural unit of a species and an elementary unit of evolution. Microevolution. Formation of new species. Speciation methods.

History of evolutionary ideas. Charles Darwin's doctrine of the driving forces of evolution. Synthetic theory of evolution. Elementary factors of evolution. Forms of natural selection, types of struggle for existence. The relationship of the driving forces of evolution. The creative role of natural selection in evolution.

Evolutionary results: adaptability of organisms to their environment, diversity of species. Evidence for the evolution of wildlife.

Macroevolution. Forms of evolution (divergence, convergence, parallelism). Directions and ways of evolution: biological progress and regression, aromorphosis, idioadaptation, degeneration. Causes of biological progress and regression. Hypotheses of the origin of life on Earth. The evolution of the organic world. The main aromorphoses in the evolution of plants and animals.

Human Origins. Man as a species, his place in the system of the organic world. Driving forces and stages of human evolution. Human races, their genetic relationship. The biosocial nature of man. Social and natural environment, human adaptation to it.

Evolutionary teaching

Evolutionary doctrine (theory of evolution) - a science that studies the historical development of life: causes, patterns and mechanisms. Distinguish between micro- and macroevolution.

Microevolution - evolutionary processes at the level of populations, leading to the formation of new species.

Macroevolution - evolution of supraspecific taxa, as a result of which larger systematic groups are formed. They are based on the same principles and mechanisms.

Development of evolutionary ideas

Heraclitus, Empidocles, Democritus, Lucretius, Hippocrates, Aristotle and other ancient philosophers formulated the first ideas about the development of living nature.
Carl Linnaeus believed in the creation of nature by God and the constancy of species, but admitted the possibility of the emergence of new species by crossing or under the influence of environmental conditions. In the book "System of Nature" K. Linnaeus substantiated the species as a universal unit and the main form of existence of living things; each species of animals and plants assigned a double designation, where the noun is the name of the genus, the adjective is the name of the species (for example, Homo sapiens); described a huge number of plants and animals; developed the basic principles of the taxonomy of plants and animals and created their first classification.
Jean Baptiste Lamarck created the first holistic evolutionary teaching. In the work "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809), he identified the main direction of the evolutionary process - the gradual complication of organization from lower to higher forms. He also developed a hypothesis about the natural origin of man from ape-like ancestors who switched to a terrestrial lifestyle. Lamarck considered the striving of organisms for perfection as the driving force of evolution and asserted the inheritance of acquired characteristics. That is, the organs necessary in the new conditions develop as a result of exercise (the neck of a giraffe), and unnecessary organs atrophy due to non-exercise (eyes of a mole). However, Lamarck was unable to reveal the mechanisms of the evolutionary process. His hypothesis about the inheritance of acquired traits turned out to be untenable, and his statement about the internal desire of organisms to improve is unscientific.
Charles Darwin created an evolutionary theory based on the concepts of the struggle for existence and natural selection. The preconditions for the emergence of Charles Darwin's doctrine were the following: accumulation by that time of rich material on paleontology, geography, geology, biology; development of selection; advances in taxonomy; the emergence of cell theory; the scientist's own observations during a circumnavigation of the world aboard the Beagle. Charles Darwin outlined his evolutionary ideas in a number of works: "The origin of species by natural selection", "Change of domestic animals and cultivated plants under the influence of domestication", "The origin of man and sexual selection", etc.

Darwin's teachings boil down to the following:

• each individual of a particular species has individuality (variability);
• personality traits (although not all) can be inherited (heredity);
• individuals produce a greater number of offspring than they survive to puberty and the beginning of reproduction, that is, there is a struggle for existence in nature;
• the advantage in the struggle for existence remains with the most adapted individuals, which have a greater chance of leaving behind offspring (natural selection);
• as a result of natural selection, there is a gradual complication of the levels of organization of life and the emergence of species.

Evolutionary factors according to Charles Darwin - this is

• heredity,
• variability,
• struggle for existence,
• natural selection.

Heredity - the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics (features of structure, development, function) from generation to generation.
Variability - the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics.
Struggle for existence - the whole complex of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions: with inanimate nature (abiotic factors) and with other organisms (biotic factors). The struggle for existence is not a "struggle" in the literal sense of the word; in fact, it is a survival strategy and a way of the organism's existence. Distinguish between intraspecific struggle, interspecific struggle and struggle with unfavorable environmental factors. Intraspecific struggle - struggle between individuals of the same population. It is always very stressful, as individuals of the same species need the same resources. Interspecies struggle - struggle between individuals of populations of different species. It occurs when species compete for the same resources or when they are linked by a predator-prey relationship. Wrestling with unfavorable abiotic environmental factors especially manifests itself when environmental conditions deteriorate; enhances intraspecific struggle. In the struggle for existence, the individuals most adapted to the given habitat conditions are revealed. The struggle for existence leads to natural selection.
Natural selection - a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with hereditary changes that are useful in these conditions survive and leave behind offspring.

All biological and many other natural sciences were rebuilt on the basis of Darwinism.
Currently, the most widely accepted is synthetic theory of evolution (STE)... Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and STE are given in the table.

Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin and the synthetic theory of evolution (STE)

The emergence of devices. Each adaptation is developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection over a number of generations. Natural selection supports only appropriate adaptations that help the body survive and reproduce.
The adaptability of organisms to the environment is not absolute, but relative, since environmental conditions can change. Many facts prove this. For example, fish are perfectly adapted to aquatic habitats, but all these adaptations are completely unsuitable for other habitats. Moths collect nectar from light-colored flowers, which are clearly visible at night, but often fly into the fire and die.

Elementary factors of evolution - factors that change the frequency of alleles and genotypes in the population (genetic structure of the population).

There are several basic elementary factors of evolution:
mutation process;
population waves and gene drift;
insulation;
natural selection.

Mutational and combinative variability.

Mutation process leads to the emergence of new alleles (or genes) and their combinations as a result of mutations. As a result of mutation, the transition of a gene from one allelic state to another (A → a) or a change in the gene in general (A → C) is possible. The mutational process, due to the randomness of mutations, does not have directionality and, without the participation of other evolutionary factors, cannot direct the change in the natural population. It only supplies the elementary evolutionary material for natural selection. Recessive mutations in a heterozygous state constitute a hidden reserve of variability that can be used by natural selection when conditions of existence change.
Combinative variability arises as a result of the formation in descendants of new combinations of already existing genes inherited from their parents. The sources of combinative variability are the crossing of chromosomes (recombination), random divergence of homologous chromosomes in meiosis, and a random combination of gametes during fertilization.

Population waves and gene drift.

Population waves (life waves) - periodic and non-periodic fluctuations in the population size, both upward and downward. The reasons for population waves can be periodic changes in environmental factors of the environment (seasonal fluctuations in temperature, humidity, etc.), non-periodic changes (natural disasters), settlement of new territories by species (accompanied by a sharp outbreak of numbers).
Population waves act as an evolutionary factor in small populations where gene drift is possible. Gene drift - random undirected change in the frequencies of alleles and genotypes in populations. In small populations, the action of random processes leads to noticeable consequences. If the population is small in number, then as a result of random events, some individuals, regardless of their genetic constitution, may or may not leave offspring, as a result of which the frequencies of some alleles may change dramatically in one or several generations. So, with a sharp decline in the population size (for example, due to seasonal fluctuations, reduced food resources, fire, etc.), rare genotypes may be among the few surviving individuals. If in the future the number is restored at the expense of these individuals, then this will lead to a random change in the allele frequencies in the population gene pool. Thus, population waves are the supplier of evolutionary material.
Insulation due to the emergence of a variety of factors that impede free crossing. The exchange of genetic information between the formed populations stops, as a result of which the initial differences in the gene pools of these populations increase and become fixed. Isolated populations can undergo various evolutionary changes, gradually transform into different species.
Distinguish between spatial and biological isolation. Spatial (geographic) isolation associated with geographical obstacles (water barriers, mountains, deserts, etc.), and for sedentary populations, and simply with large distances. Biological isolation due to the impossibility of mating and fertilization (due to a change in the timing of reproduction, structure or other factors that prevent crossing), the death of zygotes (due to biochemical differences in gametes), sterility of the offspring (as a result of a violation of chromosome conjugation during gametogenesis).
The evolutionary significance of isolation is that it reinforces and enhances genetic differences between populations.
Natural selection. Changes in the frequencies of genes and genotypes caused by the evolutionary factors discussed above are random, undirected. Natural selection is the driving force behind evolution.

Natural selection - a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with useful properties for the population survive and leave behind offspring.

Selection operates in populations; its objects are the phenotypes of individual individuals. However, selection for phenotypes is selection of genotypes, since not traits, but genes are transmitted to offspring. As a result, there is an increase in the relative number of individuals in the population that have a certain property or quality. Thus, natural selection is a process of differential (selective) reproduction of genotypes.
Selection affects not only the properties that increase the likelihood of leaving offspring, but also characters that are not directly related to reproduction. In some cases, selection can be aimed at creating mutual adaptations of species to each other (plant flowers and insects visiting them). Traits can also be created that are harmful to an individual, but ensure the survival of the species as a whole (a stung bee dies, but, attacking the enemy, it keeps the family). In general, selection plays a creative role in nature, since from undirected hereditary changes are fixed those that can lead to the formation of new groups of individuals, more perfect in the given conditions of existence.
There are three main forms of natural selection: stabilizing, driving, and disruptive (disruptive) (table).

Forms of natural selection

A brief history of the evolution of the organic world

The age of the Earth is about 4.6 billion years. Life on Earth originated in the ocean over 3.5 billion years ago.
A brief history of the development of the organic world is presented in the table. The phylogenesis of the main groups of organisms is shown in the figure.
The history of the development of life on Earth is studied by the fossil remains of organisms or traces of their vital activity. They are found in rocks of different ages.
The geochronological scale of the Earth's history is divided into eras and periods.

Geochronological scale and history of the development of living organisms

The first task corresponds to the first section in the codifier, which can be found without problems on the FIPI website.

The section titled “Biology as a Science. Methods of Scientific Cognition ". What does this mean? There is no specifics here, so, in fact, it can include anything.

In the codifier, you can find a list of content elements that are checked for the exam. That is, everything that you need to know to successfully complete the task is listed there. For correct execution, you can get 1 point.

We present them below for your reference:

1. Biology as a science, its achievements, methods of cognition of living nature.
2. The role of biology in the formation of the modern natural science picture of the world.
3. Level organization and evolution. The main levels of organization of living nature: cellular, organismal, population-specific, biogeocenotic, biosphere.
4. Biological systems. Common signs biological systems: cellular structure, features chemical composition, metabolism and energy conversion, homeostasis, irritability, movement, growth and development, reproduction, evolution.

It looks very difficult and incomprehensible, however, in the process of preparation you will still get acquainted with all these topics, they do not need to be taught for a separate task.

Analysis of typical tasks No. 1 of the exam in biology

After reviewing all the tasks offered by the open bank, you can distinguish two classifications of tasks for yourself: according to the thematic section and according to the question form.

By thematic section

If you arrange in order from largest to smallest, you get:

• Botany
• human anatomy
• Cytology
• General biology
• Genetics
• Evolution

Let's take a look at examples of tasks for each section.

Botany

Consider the proposed scheme for the structure of the organs of a flowering plant. Write down the missing term indicated on the diagram with a question mark in the answer.

Stem, buds and leaves together make up the ground part of the plant - shoot

Answer: escape.

human anatomy

Consider the proposed skeletal structure upper limb... Write down the missing term indicated on the diagram with a question mark in the answer.

The hand belongs to the free upper limb. If you don't go into details with the bones that make it up yet, then you just need to remember three sections: shoulder, forearm, hand.

The shoulder begins with the shoulder joint and ends with the elbow joint.

The forearm, accordingly, should end with the elbow, and start from the wrist inclusive.

Bone-brush that make up the palm and phalanges of the fingers.

Answer: shoulder.

Cytology

First, you need to familiarize yourself with the concept of "cytology" in order to understand what is at stake.

Cytology is a branch of biology that studies living cells, their organelles, their structure, functioning, processes of cell reproduction, aging and death. Also used the terms cell biology, cell biology.

The word "cytology" includes two roots from the Greek language: "cytos" - a cell, "logos" - science, as in biology - "bio" - living, "logos" - science. Knowing the roots makes it easy to put together a definition.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for organelles. Write down the missing term indicated on the diagram with a question mark in the answer.

From this diagram, it becomes clear that organelles are divided into three types according to the number of membranes. Here, only one window is allocated to each type, but this does not mean that only one organoid corresponds to each type. In addition, plant and animal cells have differences in cell structure.

Plants, unlike animals, have:

• Cellulose cell wall
• Chloroplasts Needed for Photosynthesis
• Large digestive vacuole. The older the cell, the larger the vacuole

Organelles are divided by the number of membranes:

• Single membrane organelles: endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex, lysosomes.
• Two-membrane organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, plastids (leukoplasts, chloroplasts, chromoplasts).
• Non-membrane organelles: ribosomes, centrioles, nucleolus.

In the scheme, the question is about two-membrane organelles. We know that mitochondria and plastids belong to two membranes. We argue: there is only one pass, but there are two options. It's not just that. You need to carefully re-read the question. There are two types of cells, but we are not told what we are talking about, which means the answer must be universal. Plastids are characteristic only of plant cells, therefore, mitochondria remain.

Answer: mitochondria, or mitochondria.

(Both options are indicated in the open bank)

Genetics

Again, let's turn to the definition:

Genetics is the science of the laws of heredity and variability.

Let's break the definition into definitions:

Heredity-Collective natural properties organism obtained from parents, predecessors.

Variability is a variety of traits among representatives of a given species, as well as the property of offspring to acquire differences from parental forms.

Consider the proposed classification scheme for the types of variability. Write down the missing term indicated on the diagram with a question mark in the answer.

Once the property of acquiring differences from parental forms is embedded in the concept of variability, this gives us the term "heredity". Have healthy person 46 chromosomes. 23 come from mom, 23 from dad. This means that a child is a combination of traits acquired from parents; moreover, mom and dad also carry traits of their parents in their genetic code. In the course of permutations, some are manifested in the offspring, and some can simply be transferred into the genome. Those that appeared are dominant, and those that are simply registered in genome-recessive. Such variability does not carry major changes against the background of the whole species.

Answer: combinative.

Evolution

Evolution in biology is an irreversible historical development of living nature.

It aims at the survival of the species. One should not think that evolution is only a complication of the organism; some species have followed the path of degeneration, that is, simplification, in order to survive.

Biological regression obviously has no options. Those who could not adapt to changing environmental conditions came to regression, which means they died out. Biologists know that it is not the fittest that survives, but the fittest.

Biological progress has three paths, let's start with a simple one:

Adapting is the main goal. In another way, "adapt" can be said "adapt."

The next way is idioadaptation.

Idioadaptation - the acquisition of useful signs for life.

Or in a scientific way: Idioadaptation is the direction of evolution, which consists in acquiring new characters while maintaining the level of organization of ancestral forms.

Everyone knows what an anteater looks like. He has an elongated muzzle, and all this is needed in order to get his food, small insects. Such a change in the shape of the muzzle did not make cardinal changes in the life of anteaters, however, it became more convenient for them to eat than from ancestors with a less elongated muzzle.

Aromorphosis is the appearance in the course of evolution of characteristics that significantly increase the level of organization of living organisms.

For example, the emergence of angiosperms significantly increased survival rates.

Answer: idioadaptation.

So, we analyzed one example of tasks from different sections asked in the first task.

Second classification: by form the question asked. Although there are diagrams everywhere in the first task, the question can still be posed in different ways.

Forms of questions

1 the term missing in the schema

You just need to enter the term missing in the scheme, as in the tasks above. Most of these questions.

Consider the proposed scheme of directions of evolution. Write down the missing term indicated on the diagram with a question mark in the answer.

We discussed this option above, so we write the answer right away.

Answer: idioadaptation.

2. Answer to the question from the diagram

The scheme is complete, based on your knowledge you need to answer the question according to the scheme.

Consider a picture with examples of chromosomal mutations. The number 3 on it indicates a chromosomal rearrangement ... (write down the term in the answer)

There are several types of chromosomal rearrangements that you need to know:

Duplication is a type of chromosomal rearrangement in which a portion of the chromosome is doubled.

Deletions are the loss of a portion of the chromosome.

Inversion is a change in the structure of a chromosome caused by a 180 ° rotation of one of its internal sections.

Translocation is the transfer of a section of a chromosome to another.

The third figure clearly shows that there are more chromosomes. The first four sections of the chromosome doubled, there are 9, instead of 5, as it was. This means that there was a duplication of the chromosome section.

The answer is duplication.

3. Answer to the question on the part of the circuit

The scheme is complete, but there is a question regarding some part of it:

Consider the proposed reaction scheme between amino acids. Write down in response the concept denoting the name of the chemical bond, marked on the diagram with a question mark.

This diagram shows the reaction between two amino acids, which is known from the question. There are peptide bonds between them. You will get acquainted with them in more detail when studying DNA and RNA.

A peptide bond is a chemical bond that occurs between two molecules as a result of a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group (-COOH) of one molecule and the amino group (-NH2) of another molecule, when one water molecule (H2O) is released.

Answer: peptide, or peptide bond.

According to FIPI, the first task is basic, so it is not particularly difficult for a graduate. It covers many topics, but rather superficially. After studying all the topics, it is better to look through all the available schemes for this task, since the answer is not always obvious. And do not forget to read the question carefully, it is not always the same.