Prussia in the 17th - 18th centuries. From electors to kings. History of Prussia Austria Prussia in the 18th century

Once this state was one of the most powerful in Europe. Many countries of the Old World reckoned with his interests. We are talking about Prussia, which has gone through its own unique path of development. Moreover, the history of the formation and the heyday of this state contains many interesting and remarkable facts. Prussia is primarily a country with a high level of civilization. But she did not become such at once. According to some historians, the Germans turned Prussia into a strong power. It was they who advanced it to several stages of development and expanded its boundaries. So what is Prussia? How did this state formation come about? What role did it play in foreign policy? Why did Prussia disappear from the political map of the world? Let's consider these issues in more detail.

Ancient aesties

Quite a few experts are sure that Prussia is a territory that was originally inhabited by representatives of one of the Baltic-speaking peoples. These were the Esties. They lived on the territory of the Sambia Peninsula, but as a result of the "migration of peoples" they moved westward and ended up on the lands located along the lower course of the Vistula.

The Roman historian Tacitus mentioned the Esthes in his writings at the beginning of the second century. At the same time, there are not so many details about their way of life, since there are very few sources of information - literally a few. It is known that the Prussian people occupied one of the lowest stages of civilization. The Estians were engaged in hunting and gathering. They diligently cultivated the land to harvest grain, looked for amber in shallow water, which they then sold. Representatives of the above-mentioned Baltic-speaking people could not gather powerful military squads, but they managed to give a serious rebuff to foreigners.

This is how the original history of Prussia began. But after Tacidus for the next 8 centuries, no one mentioned the Aestians. Only in the "Bavarian Geographer" they began to appear again.

Why exactly Prussia?

There is no reliable information about why the state, which in ancient times was inhabited by the Esthians, later became known as Prussia. But there are enough guesses. In particular, the monk Gall Anonymous, who was engaged in the chronicle of Poland at the end of the 11th century, suggested that this was the designation of the territory by settlers from Saxony.

They came to the Esthes to hide from Charlemagne, who was hatching plans to seize the "rebellious" duchy. The great scientist Lomonosov argued that Prussia got its name from its border with Russia. Another version regarding the etymology of the above word is that the name of the state was given by a tributary of the Neman River (Russ). According to the Danish chronicler Saxon Grammaticus, the Viking tribes, who in the 9th century sailed to the Estyans in order to plunder, called these lands Rus, which were then renamed Prussia. But this is far from all the versions. In particular, some researchers are convinced that the Aestians were excellent horse breeders, and "Prus" in the Gothic language means "horse".

Attempts to introduce Catholicism

It should be noted that ancient Prussia is a country that for a long time resisted in every possible way the religious propaganda of the Old World, where Catholicism prevailed. Preachers from Europe repeatedly came to the Estates with the mission of Christianization. One of the first to come with a commission from the Pope was the Benedictine monk (Bishop of Prague) Adalbert. At first, the inhabitants of Prussia favored him, since they took him for a traveling salesman. But, having heard a religious sermon from the lips of Adalbert, the Esthians ordered him to go home. In the end, the monk was killed. Then the Pope made another attempt to convert the inhabitants of Prussia to Catholics. On a sacred mission, he sent the Archbishop of Querfurt to the Estonian Empire.

However, this time the mission was failed, and the preacher himself was killed.

Annexation of the crusaders

But even recognizing that Prussia is a religiously rebellious state, the Pope does not give up hopes of realizing his plans. And such an opportunity will be presented to him in the 13th century. Teutonic Order Initiative Polish prince Konrad Mazowiecki and with the blessing of the head of the Catholic Church invades the territory of the Prussians and completely destroys the atheist tribe, which originally lived on the lands of the lower reaches of the Vistula.

Stronghold of the Teutonic Order

In 1255, the ruler Ottokar II built the city of Konigsberg (East Prussia) on the territory of the destroyed settlement of Tvangste. In a little over fifty years, the "Grand Marshal" of the Teutonic Order will settle here. Germans from the most remote territories came to Königsberg for a new place of residence, and soon the city became an integral part of the Hanseatic League.

At the beginning of the 15th century, the Teutonic Order was defeated by the troops of the Commonwealth, and the future East Prussia could well have lost the city of Konigsberg, which would have passed under Polish jurisdiction. But the rulers of the Commonwealth did not pursue an aggressive policy, but simply made the Teutons their vassal.

Prussian Duchy

However, the Kingdom of Poland in military terms gradually began to weaken, and its control over the previously conquered territories began to fall.

The Teutonic Order is a vivid confirmation of this. Gradually, an elector emerged on its territory, and after a while the Prussian Duchy was formed, which at the beginning of the first half of the 17th century was consolidated with Brandenburg. This is how the future foundation of the German Empire appeared. The influence of Poland on Prussian affairs came to naught in the second half of the 17th century. And at the beginning of the 18th, Elector Frederick I was awarded the royal title. He loved luxury and pomp.

Imperial times

The German Empire reached its unprecedented power and prosperity during the reign of Frederick the Great (II). He was able to create the strongest and most numerous army in Western Europe. Most of the treasury was spent on military needs. That is why Prussia began to play almost the first violin (after Russia) in foreign policy. The countries of the Old World were simply afraid to get involved in a war with Frederick. Only the Empress Elizabeth I (daughter of Peter the Great) could compete with the Prussian king. Frederick turned Prussia into a militaristic state with a tough police-bureaucratic regime. His subjects could not even dream of any freedoms and democratic values. It was under Frederick the Great, who initiated numerous military operations, that the territory of Prussia expanded significantly. Let's list the main ones.

Military successes and failures of Frederick II

First of all, mention should be made of the long-term military conflict called the War of the Austrian Succession. The Prussian king managed to join an alliance aimed at destroying the Austrian monarchy.

As a result, Frederick managed to conquer a huge part of the lands in Silesia. The Prussia - Austria confrontation actually began in December 1740. A little over a month later, Frederick's troops were already celebrating victory in the First Silesian War, and then the Prussian troops finally defeated the Austrians near the village of Molwitz.

But the military battles of Frederick the Great in the Seven Years War were not crowned with success. The Prussian king could not fulfill the task of capturing Courland, Pomerania and Saxony. Russia got involved in the war with Frederick the Great and won glorious victories at Groß-Jägersdorf (1757) and at the Battle of Kunersdorf (1759). Moreover, the city of Konigsberg became Russian in 1958. And in 1760, the troops of Elizabeth I entered Berlin. The victorious war with Prussia promised the expansion of the borders of the empire for the daughter of Peter the Great. But the autocrat died, and Peter III ascended the throne, who idolized his idol Frederick. As a result, Russian troops were withdrawn from East Prussia, and Konigsberg became German again.

Conquests of the 18th century

It should be noted that both Frederick II and other kings of Prussia were concerned about increasing the territory of the Hohenzollern state. In particular, back in 1772, the Russians, Prussians and Austrians captured the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and divided the lands in accordance with the previously signed Convention. The Duchy of Pomerania, the provinces of Malborsk, Pomorsk, Helmins, and part of the regions of Greater Poland passed to Prussia. In 1790, the occupied kingdom entered into an onerous treaty with Prussia, which heralded the second and third partitions of Poland. As a result, Prussia first passed the lands of Mazovia, Kuyavia, Thorn, the city of Danzig, and then the territories to the west of the Vistula, Bug, Pilica, Neman, together with Warsaw and the lands of Lithuania Minor.

After the capture of the Bastille ...

When the French Revolution came, Prussia forged an alliance with Austria to restore the Bourbon dynasty. But in 1795, after a series of setbacks, the Germans were forced to sign a separate peace treaty with France in Basel. In 1806, Prussia rejoined the alliance, which pursued the goal of restoring the monarchy in Paris. And after a while the Germans are again defeated, now by Napoleon Bonaparte.

The point in the Prussia-France confrontation was set in 1807, when the Peace of Tilsit was concluded, under which the Hohenzollern empire lost half of its territories. However, after the defeat of the Napoleonic army by Russia in 1812, the previously "selected" lands partially returned to Prussia (Westphalia, the Rhineland, some regions of Saxony).

Foreign policy alliances of the second half of the 19th century

Monarch Wilhelm I helped Alexander II defeat the liberation uprising in Poland, which began in 1863. And shortly thereafter, the Prussian monarch joined Austria to fight Denmark. But already in 1866, Wilhelm I entered into confrontation with his recent allies - the Austrians. He managed to win the military battles against Austria and sever a number of settlements from the Habsburg empire: Schleswig-Holstein, Hanover, Kurfgessen, Frankurth am Main. The victory over the Austrians became a turning point in history: now they could not claim a leading position in Germany, in which the Prussians had become to manage state affairs. In 1867, Wilhelm I agreed to create the North German Confederation.

In the early 70s of the 19th century, Prussia got involved in a war with France, which had a positive ending: the Hohenzollern empire grew into new territories - Eastern Lorraine and Alsace. In addition, the treasury was replenished with 5 billion francs, which were transferred to Welhelm I as an indemnity.

German empire

In the winter of 1871, the creation of the German Empire was officially announced. Moreover, Prussia was assigned a leading role in the management of the new education. The Prussian monarch simultaneously held the post of emperor of Germany, and the minister-president of Prussia was simultaneously the German chancellor. Under the conditions of the emergence of imperialism, the phenomenon of Prussianism entered the political elite of Germany as firmly as possible. Both German and Russian militarists played the first violins in the outbreak of the First World War.

In the fall of 1918, a revolution took place in Germany, the ideologists of which overthrew the imperial regime. Former Prussia is now left without a monarch. The Kaiser's regime fell.

Now power in the state has passed to the Weimar Republic. It is noteworthy that it included a province called Prussia, and it had far from the last influence on the economic and political life of the country.

Mode change

When, in the first half of the 30s of the 20th century, power in the country passed to Adolf Hitler, the political electorate of the aforementioned province was consolidated with the state apparatus of the Third Reich. Naturally, Prussia, like the rest of Germany, rose under the banner of fascist ideology.

The fate of East Prussia

Great Patriotic War began with an attack on the Baltic countries, and the German army "North" began to conduct it from East Prussia. Only in April 1945, as a result of the assault, Russian troops managed to capture Konigsberg. As soon as the war ended, East Prussia became a special military district. And at that time 8 military commandant's offices were stationed in Konigsberg.

At a conference in Potsdam, Stalin, Churchill and Truman decided that East Prussia would be abolished. 1945 was her last year. The former German province was divided between the USSR and Poland. The city of Konigsberg became Russian again. And in the spring of 1946, by a special decree of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces, the Konigsberg Oblast was formed as part of the RSFSR, which was renamed Kaliningrad Oblast a few months later. The capital of the new region of the Land of the Soviets was the city of Kaliningrad (formerly Konigsberg). Since 1946, immigrants from other regions of the Union began to move here.

Conclusion

Based on the foregoing, one cannot but agree that Prussia has passed a great path of historical development. Sometimes she had wise rulers who were able to create a unique nation, accustomed to economy, obedience and order. But alas, one day the one whose policy led to the death of the Prussian people came to power.

Culturally, the Prussians, as direct descendants of the carriers of the so-called Corded Ware culture (III-II millennium BC), were closest to the ancient Curonians. The Prussian nationality began to take shape in the 5th-6th centuries, in the conditions of the "Great Migration of Peoples", however, characteristic features can be traced archaeologically from the beginning new era... So the Estonians, the direct predecessors of the Prussians, buried the horse in full gear away from the warrior's burial. The role of the horse in everyday life and ritual customs continued over the next 13 centuries.

Based on the study of archaeological finds, researchers suggest that the Prussian nation originated on the Sambia Peninsula, and then its carriers migrated in the era of "migration of peoples" to the west, to the lower reaches of the Vistula. On this path of settling new territories, up to the 9th century, there is a mixing with elements of German military culture.

The formation of the Prussian ethnos took place on the basis of the culture of the southern Aestians (that is, the eastern people), which were mentioned by the Roman historian Tacitus at the beginning of the 2nd century, and this process ended around the 11th century. Tacitus left a little about the lifestyle of the Aestians:

“They rarely use swords, but often clubs. They cultivate the land for bread and its other products with great patience ... But they also ransack the sea and one of all collect amber in shallow places and on the very shore ... They themselves do not use it at all: it is collected in a rough form, without every decoration is brought [for sale], and they are surprised to receive payment for it. "

After Tacitus, the first information about the Prussians, or the tribes inhabiting the Prussian lands, appears only after 8 centuries, except for the not entirely reliable stories written already in the 16th century. It is assumed that it was the Prussians who had in mind the Bavarian geographer under the general name Bruzi. The time when the work was written by the Bavarian Geographer is not known exactly. It is conservatively believed that in the 2nd half of the 9th century, but excerpts from, probably, his work, were included around 850 in a larger manuscript belonging to the Reichenau monastery on the Bodensee. In this case, the term Prussians has been known since the 1st half of the 9th century.

It is not known where the name Prussians or Prussia came from. According to the testimony of the Polish chronicler of French origin, Gallus Anonymous (XI-XII centuries), during the time of Charlemagne, “when Saxony was rebellious towards him and did not accept the yoke of his power,” a part of the population of Saxony went on ships to the future Prussia and, occupying this area, gave her the name "Prussia". According to some researchers, the self-name of the country of the Prussians (Prusa, Prusa) is consonant with the ancient name of the country of the Frisians (Fruza, Frusa); Probably, the Frisians who did not want to abandon paganism, being the main allies of the "rebellious" Saxons, brought to the territory of Poghezania, Pomezania and Warmia the prototype of the self-name of the ancient Prussians.

According to another version, the name originated from the hydronym Russ, the name of a tributary of the Neman River, or Russna - the former name of the Curonian Lagoon, which can be seen on maps of the 16th century. The Vikings, who raided these lands in the 1st half of the 9th century and possibly even had settlements there, called these lands Russia, according to legends recorded by the Danish chronicler Saxon Grammaticus at the turn of the 12th-13th centuries.

The third version derives the name from the horse breeding for which the ancient Prussians were famous. Prus means horse in Gothic and mare in Old Church Slavonic.

History of the Prussians

Early middle ages

The first reports about the way of life of the ancient Prussians came from England. King Alfred the Great at the end of the 9th century, translating the chronicle of Orosius, included excerpts on the geography of contemporary Europe, including the coast of the Baltic Sea. The information was given to the king by the navigators Wulfstan and Oter. About the land to the east of the Vistula, Estiev Wulfstan says that:

“It is very big and there are many cities and in every city there is a king, and there is also a lot of honey and fishing. The king and the rich drink mare's milk, and the poor and the slaves drink honey. And they have many wars; and beer is not consumed among the Aestians, but there is enough honey.

And the Aestians have a custom that if a person dies there, he remains inside [the house] unburned with his relatives and friends for a month, and sometimes two; and kings and other noble people - the longer, the more wealth they have; and sometimes they remain unburned for six months and lie on top of the ground in their homes. And as long as the body is inside, there is a feast and play until the day when they burn it.

Then on the very day when they decide to take him to the fire, they divide his property, which remains after the feast and games, into five or six [parts], sometimes more, depending on the size of the property. Of it, they lay most of it about one mile from the city, then another, then a third, until everything is laid within a mile; and the smallest part should be closest to the city in which the dead person lies. Then all the men with the fastest horses in the country gather, about five or six miles from that property.

Then they all rush to the property; and the man who has the fastest horse comes to the first and largest part, and so on, one by one, until everything is taken; and the smallest share is taken by the one who reaches the part of the property closest to the village. And then each goes his own way with the property, and it belongs to them completely; and therefore fast horses are extremely expensive there. And when his treasures are thus completely distributed, then he is taken out and burned along with his weapons and clothes ... "

Medieval chroniclers do not note big wars or campaigns that the Prussians would lead against their neighbors, but they themselves often became the object of Viking raids, as Saxon Grammaticus narrates and the Arab writer of the 2nd half of the 10th century Ibrahim ibn Yakub said: “The Bars [Prussians] live near the World Ocean and have a special language. They do not understand the languages ​​of neighboring peoples [Slavs]. They are known for their courage ... The named Rus attacked them on ships from the west. "

The process of disintegration of the tribal system and lack of unity did not allow the Prussians to create a large army, but at the same time they successfully fought off their neighbors. The Prussians, unlike the neighboring Slavs (Bodrich and Ruyan), are not mentioned in piracy in the Baltic, they are engaged in cattle breeding, hunting, fishing, trade, amber mining and military trade. Agriculture became the leading occupation of the Prussians only at the beginning of the 12th century. Adam of Bremen in the 1070s left the following review about the Sembs, a Prussian tribe on the Sambia Peninsula (now in the Kaliningrad region):

“It is inhabited by the Semby, or Prussians, very friendly people. They, unlike the previous ones, lend a helping hand to those who are in danger at sea or have experienced an attack by pirates. Local residents value gold and silver very low, and they have an abundance of foreign skins, the smell of which brought the destructive poison of pride to our lands ...
Much could be indicated in the morals of these people, which is worthy of praise, if only they believed in Christ, whose preachers are now being cruelly persecuted ... , drives these people to the point of intoxication. The inhabitants of those regions are blue-eyed, red-faced and long-haired. "

The first attempts at Christianization

Catholic Europe has repeatedly attempted to Christianize the Prussians, especially after Poland's adoption of Christianity in 966. The most famous attempt of this kind was the mission of a Benedictine monk, Bishop Adalbert of Prague. On the eve of 1000, with which many in Europe at that time associated the “second coming of Christ” and “the last judgment,” Adalbert decided to make a mission trip to Prussia. In 997 he arrived in the then Kashubian Gdansk; taking two monks there as companions, he went by boat to Prussia and soon landed on the coast in the region of the Sambia Peninsula. In the lands of the Prussians, Adalbert spent only 10 days. At first, the Prussians, mistaking Adalbert for a merchant, greeted him friendly, but realizing that he was trying to preach to them, they began to drive him away. Considering that Adalbert arrived from Poland, which was then the main enemy of the Prussians, it is not difficult to understand why the Prussians advised Adalbert to "get out where [he] came from." In the end, the monk accidentally wandered into the sacred grove of the Prussians, who took it as blasphemy. For his fatal mistake, Adalbert was stabbed to death with a spear. This happened on the night of April 23, 997 near the present village of Beregovoe (Kaliningrad region, not far from the city of Primorsk). The body of the deceased missionary ransomed Grand Duke Polish Boleslav I the Brave.

Despite the failure of Adalbert's mission, attempts to Christianize the Prussians did not stop. In 1008, the missionary archbishop Bruno of Querfurt went to Prussia (while he chose a rather roundabout path - through Kiev, where he met with Vladimir Svyatoslavich and preached among the Pechenegs). Like Adalbert, Bruno was killed by the Prussians. This happened on February 14, 1009 on the then Prussian-Lithuanian border.

The disappearance of the Prussian people

In the 13th century, under the pretext of Christianizing the Prussians, their lands were conquered by the Teutonic Order. The first units of the knights of this order appeared in Prussia in 1230, after the Pope issued a bull in 1218, equating the crusade to Prussia with the crusades to Palestine.

The conquered Prussians forcibly converted to Christianity, the dissenters were simply exterminated; any manifestation of paganism was subjected to the most severe persecution. The process of settling the Prussian lands by German colonists began, who settled near the castles founded by the knights. These castles and the cities that arose under their protection served as the main strongholds of the Germanization of the indigenous population. The tribal nobility entered the language of the conquerors around the end of the 14th century, but the rural population remained ethnically Prussian for a long time (with the exception of the northern and southern regions of the future East Prussia). In the XV-XVI centuries. the peasantry of Nadrovia, Sambia, northern Natangia and northern Bartia underwent almost complete lituanization, and the peasantry of Galindia, Sassia, southern Warmia and southern Bartia - the same polonization from the side of the Lithuanian and Polish settlers who entered Prussia en masse.

From a mixture of the Prussian, Lithuanian and partly Polish population of East Prussia with German-speaking colonists by the beginning of the twentieth century. a special sub-ethnic group was formed - the Germans-Prussians, and the time of the final disappearance of the Prussian people can be conditionally considered 1709-1711, when about half of the population of the ancient Prussian lands died from hunger and the plague epidemic, including the last speakers of the Prussian language.

Brief chronology of ancient Prussian history

Chronology of the development of the ancient Prussian people before the seizure of lands by the Teutonic Order.
51-63 years - the appearance of Roman legionnaires on the Amber Coast of the Baltic, the first mention of the Aestians in ancient literature (Pliny the Elder);
180-440 biennium - the appearance on Sambia of groups of the North German population - the Cimbri;
425-455 - the appearance on the coast of the Vistula Lagoon of representatives of the Hunnic state, the participation of the Aesties in the Hunnic campaigns, the disintegration of the state of Attila and the return of part of the Aesties to their homeland;
450-475 biennium - the formation of the beginnings of Prussian culture;
514 - the legendary date of the arrival in the Prussian lands of the brothers Brutin and Videut with an army, who became the first princes of the Prussians. The legend is supported by the transition of the archaeological culture of the Cimbri to the appearance of signs of the material culture of North German warriors;
OK. 700 - the battle in the south of Natangia between the Prussians and the inhabitants of Mazury, the Prussians won. The base at the mouth of the river. The feet of the Truso trade and craft center, the first in the land of the Prussians. Silver began to flow to Prussia through Truso in the form of coins;
OK. 800 AD - Danish Viking Ragnar Lodbrok appears on Sambia. Viking raids continued for the next 400 years. Establishment of the Kaup trade and craft center in the north of Sambia;
800-850 biennium - the Prussians become known under this name (Geographer of Bavaria);
860-880 Truso is destroyed by the Vikings. Journey of the Anglo-Saxon Wulfstan to the western border of the land of the Prussians;
983 - the first Russian campaign to the southern outskirts of the land of the Prussians;
992 - the beginning of the Polish campaigns in the land of the Prussians;
997 - martyrdom on April 23 in the north of Sambia, St. Adalbert, the first Christian missionary in Prussia;
1009 - the death of the missionary Bruno of Querfurt at the border of Yatvyagia and Russia;
1010 - destruction by the Polish king Boleslav I the Brave of the sanctuary of the Prussians Romov in Natangia;
1014-1016 - the campaign of the Danish king Kanut the Great against Sambia, the destruction of Kaup;
end of the XI century. - the Prussian squad leaves Sambia, the Prussians invade their neighbors;
1110-1111 - the campaign of the Polish king Boleslav III to the Prussian lands of Natangia and Sambia;
1147 - a joint campaign of Russian and Polish troops to the southern outskirts of the land of the Prussians;
OK. 1165 - the appearance of "Prusskaya Street" in Novgorod the Great; the campaign of Boleslav IV in the land of the Prussians and the death of his army in the Masurian swamps;
1206, October 26 - bull of Pope Innocent III on the Christianization of the Prussians - the beginning of the crusade against the Prussians
1210 - the last Danish raid on Sambia;
1222-1223 biennium - the crusades of the Polish princes against the Prussians;
1224 - the Prussians cross the river. Vistula and burn Oliva and Drevenica in Poland;
1229 - the Polish prince Konrad Mazowiecki cedes the Chelma land to the Teutonic Order for 20 years;
1230 - the first military actions of the German knights-brothers against the Prussians at the Vogelsang castle. Bull of Pope Gregory IX, giving the Teutonic Order the right to baptize the Prussians;
1233 - the defeat of the Prussians at the battle of Sirgun (Pomezania);
1239-1240 - the foundation of the Balga castle, its siege by the Prussians and the de-blockade;
1241 - conversion to Orthodoxy under the name of John of the Prussian military leader Glando Kambilo, the son of Divon, the ancestor of the Romanov family, who came to Novgorod. Mongol raid on Prussia;
1242-1249 - the uprising of the Prussians against the Order in alliance with the Pomor (Polish) prince Svyatopolk;
1249 - the Christburg Peace Treaty, which legally confirmed the conquest of the southwestern land of the Prussians by the Order;
1249, September 29 - the victory of the Prussians at Kruke (Natangia);
1249-1260 biennium - the second uprising of the Prussians;
1251 - the clash of the Prussian detachment with the Russian army of Prince Daniel of Galitsky at the river. Lyk;
1254 - the beginning of the campaign of the King of Bohemia Ottokar II Przemysl against Sambia;
1255 - foundation of the Konigsberg and Ragnit castles;
1260-1283 - the third uprising of the Prussians;
1283 - the capture of Yatvyagia by the crusaders, which consolidated the victory of the Teutonic Order over the Prussians.

PRUSSIA WITHOUT PRUSSIANS

After in the XIII century, at the request of the Polish prince Konrad Mazowiecki and with the blessing of the Pope of Rome, the crusaders, led by the Teutonic Order, completely destroyed the pagan Lithuanian tribe of Prussians (due to the fact that they did not want to accept Christianity), on the site of their settlement Twangste - by the Sudeten king Ottokar II founded the city of Konigsberg.

In 1410, after the defeat of the Teutonic Order by the Commonwealth, Konigsberg could become a Polish city. But then the Polish kings limited themselves to the fact that the order became their vassal. When the Rzecz Pospolita began to weaken, on the lands of the Teutonic Order, first the Elector, then the Prussian Duchy arose.

At the beginning of the 16th century. Albrecht from the Hohenzollern dynasty, established in Brandenburg in 1415, was elected Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, which after the Thirteen Years War with Poland (1454-66) became its vassal (Prussia's fiefdom from Poland remained until the 1860s).

The Duchy of Prussia united in 1618 with Brandenburg, which created the nucleus of the future German Empire. In 1701, Elector Frederick III received the title of king from the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (in exchange for a contingent of troops for the upcoming War of the Spanish Succession). The Brandenburg-Prussian state became a kingdom. After Berlin became its capital instead of Konigsberg, a new history began for all of Germany - an imperial one.

Under King Frederick II (ruled 1740-86), about 2/3 of the annual regular budget was spent on military needs; the Prussian army became the first in number in Western Europe. In Prussia, a militaristic police-bureaucratic regime (the so-called Prussianism) was consolidated. Any manifestation of free thought was ruthlessly suppressed. With a view to territorial expansion, Prussia waged numerous wars. During the War of the Austrian Succession of 1740-48, Prussia conquered most of Silesia. In the Seven Years' War of 1756-63, Prussia intended to seize Saxony, which had not yet been captured by a part of Pomorie, Courland and to strengthen its influence on the small German states, respectively weakening the influence of Austria on them, but suffered a major defeat from Russian troops at Groß-Jägersdorf (1757) and in Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759.

Konigsberg in 1758 became a Russian city for the first time. Even the issue of coins of the "Prussian province" was established. In 1760 Russian troops occupied Berlin, the capital of Prussia. Only disagreements between the main opponents of Prussia (Austria, Russia, France) and the accession to the Russian throne after the death of Elizabeth Petrovna (1761) of the Duke of Holsteinottorp Peter III saved Prussia from disaster. Peter III concluded peace and alliance with Frederick II, and in 1762 withdrew Russian troops from East Prussia, and returned the city to Frederick. As a result, for many years Prussia remained an ally of the Russian tsars, as well as a trade and technological bridge between Russia and Europe.

Junkers played a leading role in the economic and political life of Prussia. Prussian kings from the Hohenzollern dynasty (Frederick II and others) in the 18th - 1st half. 19th century significantly expanded the territory of the state. In the last third of the 18th century. Prussia, together with tsarist Russia and Austria, participated in three sections of the Commonwealth, as a result of which it captured Poznan, the central regions of the country with Warsaw, as well as Gdansk, Torun and a number of other territories. By the end of the 18th century. The Hohenzollerns increased the territory of Prussia to more than 300 thousand km.

During the Great French Revolution, Prussia, together with Austria, formed the core of the 1st anti-French coalition of European monarchical states (1792). However, after a series of defeats, Prussia was forced to sign a separate Peace of Basel with France (1795). In 1806 Prussia joined the 4th anti-French coalition. The Prussian army was soon defeated by Napoleon in the battles of Jena and Auerstedt. According to the Peace of Tilsit in 1807, Prussia lost about 1/2 of its territory.

The defeat of the Napoleonic army in Russia was the starting point of the liberation war of the German people against the Napoleonic yoke. According to the Vienna Treaty of 1815, Prussia received 2/5 of the territory of Saxony, as well as lands along the Rhine (Rhineland and Westphalia); its population exceeded 10 million. In 1834, a customs union that embraced many German states was created, in which Prussia belonged to the leading role.

The Prussian rulers helped the tsarist government of Russia to suppress the Polish liberation uprising of 1863-64 and at this price achieved the favorable position of tsarism during the period of Prussia's struggle for hegemony in Germany.

In 1864, Prussia, together with Austria, began a war against Denmark, as a result of which Schleswig-Holstein was torn away from Denmark, and in 1866, a war against Austria and the small ones allied with it. states. At the end of the Austro-Prussian War of 1866, Prussia annexed the territories of Hanover, Kurfgessen, Nassau, Schleswig-Holstein, Frankfurt am Main. Having inflicted a defeat on Austria, Prussia finally eliminated it as a rival in the struggle for a dominant role in Germany, which predetermined the unification of Germany under Prussian domination. In 1867, Prussia created the North German Confederation.

In 1870-71, Prussia waged a war against France (see Franco-Prussian War of 1870-71), as a result of which it seized the French regions of Alsace and East Lorraine and received an indemnity of 5 billion francs.

On January 18, 1871, the formation of the German Empire was proclaimed. Prussia retained dominant positions in the united Germany; The Prussian king was at the same time the German emperor, the Prussian minister-president usually held (until 1918) the post of the imperial chancellor, as well as the Prussian foreign minister. Prussianism, entrenched in the German Empire, manifested itself with particular force under the conditions of imperialism.

The Prussian-German militarists played a huge role in unleashing the 1st World War 1914-18. In September 1914, General Samsonov's army was killed in the Prussian swamps.

As a result of the November Revolution of 1918 in Germany, the monarchy in Prussia was abolished. In the Weimar Republic, Prussia became one of the provinces ("lands"), but retained its predominance in the economic and political life of the country. With the establishment of the fascist dictatorship in Germany (January 1933), the state apparatus of Prussia was merged with the state apparatus of the "Third Empire". Prussia, like all of Germany, was fascized.

On June 22, 1941, the group of German armies "North" inflicted a blow on the Soviet Baltic from the territory of East Prussia. On April 9, 1945, Soviet troops stormed Konigsberg.

In 1945, by the decision of the Potsdam Conference of the three great powers (USSR, USA, Great Britain) on the liquidation of East Prussia, the region was divided between the USSR and Poland. On April 7, 1946, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a decree "On the formation of the Konigsberg region as part of the RSFSR", and on July 4, the region was renamed Kaliningrad. The administrative center of the region, founded in 1255 as the city of Konigsberg, was renamed Kaliningrad.

H D E S L H A W A O B L O Z K A

Brandenburg

Prussia was formed on the basis of the Electorship of Brandenburg, created during the German feudal aggression against the Slavic tribes that began in the XII century, and the state of the Teutonic Order, the foundations of which were laid in
XIII century by wars of destruction against the tribe of the Prussians (hence the name
Prussia) and the capture of Slavic (mainly Polish) lands in the 14th century.

The Brandenburg invaders and the Teutonic Order, overcoming resistance, founded castles, cities, bishoprics in the regions inhabited by the Slavs and Prussians, and the indigenous inhabitants were exterminated or enslaved by forcible Germanization. At the beginning of the 16th century, Albrecht, one of the representatives of the Hohenzollern dynasty, which ruled in Brandenburg since 1415, was elected Grand Master of the Teutonic Order, who happened to be after
Thirteen Years' War with Poland (1454 - 1466) as her vassal. Albrecht
Hohenzollern turned the lands of the Teutonic Order into a secular state
(Duchy of Prussia), but its fiefdom from Poland was preserved. In 1618, when Albrecht's offspring in the male line was interrupted, Brandenburg Elector Johann Sigismund, in exchange for a promise to participate in the war against Sweden, received the Prussian duchy from the Polish king as a fiefdom. Thus, the Duchy of Prussia was effectively annexed to Brandenburg. Formed

United Brandenburg-Prussian state

His policy was based on the principle: to serve the interests of the Hohenzollerns and the Prussian nobles. The former knighthood, which turned into the owners of serf estates - the cadets, was the ruling class here. Huge land wealth was concentrated in the bunches of the cadets. The ties of the landlord estates with the market, strengthened as a result of the movement of trade routes from the Mediterranean Sea to the Atlantic Ocean from the end of the 16th century, contributed to the enslavement of the Prussian peasantry and the strengthening of the economic power of the Junkers. The Hohenzollerns, extremely interested in expanding their possessions, resorted to any means for this purpose: violence, bribery, treacherous conspiracies. A characteristic feature of the Brandenburg-Prussian state was militarism, which left an imprint on the entire subsequent history
Prussia.

The importance of the Brandenburg-Prussian state among the German states increased, but not at all because its rulers introduced an element of order and unity into the chaos that reigned in Germany, as Junker historiography claims. On the contrary, they used in every possible way in their dynastic interests the fragmentation of Germany and the impotence of small German principalities, expanding the territory of Brandenburg - Prussia not only at the expense of the Slavic lands, but also at the expense of the territory of Germany. Prussia saw in Germany, as well as in Poland, only a territory from which it was possible to snatch land in its favor. Back in 1609, Johann Sigismund annexed part of the Duchy of Julich-Cleves (Cleve, Mark,
Ravensberg). Under Frederick Wilhelm (1640 - 1688) the so-called great elector, whom Junker historiography considers one of the founders
Brandenburg-Prussian state, to this state passed (by
Peace of Westphalia in 1648), most of Western Pomerania (originally Polish lands) and a number of other territories. In 1657, when the threat of war between Poland and Sweden arose, Friedrich Wilhelm achieved, in the form of payment for his neutrality, Poland's refusal of sovereignty over
Duchy of Prussia. In 1701, Elector Frederick III, at the cost of the blood of his subjects, received the title of king from the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, who needed military contingents for the upcoming war for the Spanish succession. Brandenburg-Prussian state became a kingdom

Under King Frederick II (1740 - 1786), over 80% of the annual regular budget (13 million thalers out of 16) was spent on military needs. The Prussian army during this period grew to 195 thousand people and became the first in number in Western Europe. the Prussian army was characterized by brutal drill and stick discipline. militarism was supplemented in Prussia by bureaucracy; any manifestation of free-thinking was mercilessly suppressed.

In their politics, the Hohenzollerns especially often resorted to treachery.
In the 40s of the 18th century, Frederick II, who sought to take from Austria the Polish region of Silesia that had been captured by it in the past, then entered into an alliance with France against
Austria, then secretly conspired with Austria and betrayed France, so that in the end, relying on France, to defeat Austria and capture Silesia.
The 1745 treaty secured most of Silesia to Prussia. In the Seven Years' War of 1756 - 1763, Prussia intended to seize Saxony.
Pomorie, Courland and strengthen their influence on the small German states, respectively weakening the influence of Austria on them, but suffered major defeats from Russian troops at Gross-Jägersdorf (1757) and in
Battle of Kunersdorf in 1759. In 1760, Russian troops occupied the Prussian capital Berlin. The position of Prussia was critical. Only disagreements between its main opponents (Austria, Russia, France) and the accession to the Russian throne after the death of Queen Elizabeth Petrovna (1761) of the Duke of Holstein Peter III saved Prussia from disaster. Peter III made peace and alliance with Frederick II.

In the last third of the 18th century, Prussia, seeking to seize the fertile Polish lands and eliminate Polish competition in the grain trade, together with tsarist Russia and Austria, participated in the partition of Poland. As a result of the first (1772), second (1793) and third (1795) partitions of Poland
Prussia annexed Poznan, the central regions of the country with Warsaw, and
Gdansk, Torun and a number of other territories. This led to the fact that in Prussia the Polish population at times outnumbered the German population. By the end
In the 18th century, the Hohenzollerns brought the territory of Prussia to more than 300 thousand km2. However, endless wars have drained the country.

Kings of Prussia of the 18th century

Frederick I (07/11/1657 - 02/25/1713), reign: 1701 - 1713

King of Prussia, before that Elector of Brandenburg (from 1688). Son of Elector Friedrich Wilhelm. Pledging to supply the emperor with the "Sacred
Roman Empire "military contingent for the impending war, received the royal title. He was crowned on January 18, 1701 in Königsberg.
Patronized science and art (under him the University of Halle was founded,
Academy of Arts and Academy of Sciences in Berlin).

Frederick Wilhelm I, reign: 1713 - 1740

Frederick II (01.24.1712 - 08.17.1786), reign: 1740 - 1786

Prussian king from the Hohenzollern dynasty. Major commander. A son
Frederick
William I. In his youth, he was influenced by the philosophy of the French
Enlightenment (was later associated with Voltaire and some other French enlighteners). This did not prevent him, after taking the throne, to become the most consistent representative of Prussian military-bureaucratic absolutism and militarism, an expression of the class interests of the Prussian nobility.

Already in 1740, Frederick II invaded Silesia, which belonged to Austria, unleashing a series of wars with the latter. He skillfully alternated military actions with diplomatic maneuvers, often distinguished by treachery. As a result of the so-called 1st (1740 - 1742) and 2nd (1744 - 1745) Silesian Wars, he managed to secure most of Silesia to Prussia, which was of great economic and strategic importance. During the Seven Years' War 1756 - 1763
Frederick II, improving the then dominant linear tactics
(for example, using the so-called oblique battle order), inflicted a number of defeats on the Austrian and French troops, but these successes were nullified by the victories of the Russian troops; only thanks to favorable political circumstances for Prussia, she escaped complete defeat. The result of the bloody war was the establishment of Prussia as a powerful rival of Austria in the struggle for domination in Germany (for this purpose, in the subsequent 1785, Frederick II created the so-called Union of Princes under the auspices of Prussia as a counterweight to Austria). Frederick II actively sought the partition of Poland, which allowed him to unite East Prussia with the rest of the kingdom (as a result of the first partition of Poland in 1772).

Frederick II constantly focused on strengthening the army. By the end of his reign, it numbered about 190 thousand people, and its content absorbed almost 2/3 of the state budget. The splendor and splendor of the Prussian court (the construction of a new royal residence - the Palace of Sanssouci in Postdam and others), in which Frederick competed with the French monarchs, cost a lot of money. He strove to establish himself as a connoisseur and patron of the arts, was the author of a number of philosophical and historical works
("Anti-Machiavell" - "Anti-Machiavell", 1740; "The history of my time" -
Histoire de mon temps, 1746; “History of the Seven Years War” - “Histoire de la guerre de sept ans”, 1763, and others), written mainly in French. Acting in the spirit of the so-called enlightened absolutism, Frederick II carried out a series of reforms. Torture was abolished, the principle of independence of judges was asserted, albeit inconsistently, the proceedings were simplified, the Prussian Zemstvo Code was developed
(published in 1794), expanded primary education; interested in attracting immigrants to Prussia, Frederick pursued a policy of religious tolerance. however, many events were only ostentatious
(for example, posing as a supporter of free thought, Frederick declared freedom of the press in 1740, and later confirmed the strict obligation of censorship). Attempts were made (unsuccessful) to stop the eviction of peasants from the land (for the eviction reduced tax revenues and reduced the conscripts). Frederick pursued a mercantilist and protectionist policy, which in general promoted the development of manufacturing production, but at the same time fettered the initiative of entrepreneurs with petty state tutelage. The introduction of a new procedure for the collection of excise taxes and duties (the establishment in 1766 of the General Administration of Royal Revenue, headed by French officials) and the burdensome state monopoly on the sale of coffee and tobacco caused strong discontent among the people.

Under Frederick II, Prussia became one of the great powers, its territory almost doubled. However, his regime turned out to be backward and fragile.
This was discovered shortly after the death of Frederick - during the wars of Prussia with revolutionary and then Napoleonic France.

Seven Years' War (1756 - 1763)

The war arose as a result of the struggle of England and France for the colonies and the clash of the aggressive policy of Prussia with the interests of Austria, France and
Russia. In her colonial expansion, England collided with France, which had vast possessions in North America and the East Indies. Anglo-French rivalry took the form of armed clashes in Canada in 1754-1755, but it was not until 1756 that England officially declared war on France.

Coalition building

The Anglo-French conflict complicated the political situation in Europe and caused a restructuring of the traditional political ties of European states.
In the middle of the 18th century, Prussia rose among the European states, expanding its territory at the expense of German and Polish lands as a result of the Northern War of 1700-1721 and the War of Austrian Succession of 1740-1748. The policy of Prussia assumed a sharply aggressive character under King Frederick II, who completed the creation of the Prussian cadet state with a strong army and a powerful military-police apparatus. Austria, seeking to return Silesia, captured by Prussia during the War of the Austrian Succession, sought an alliance with Russia and in 1746 entered into an alliance treaty with it, to which it joined in 1750
England. But, having entered into an armed conflict with France, England, fearing an attack on Hanover, which was in the hereditary possession of the English king, turned to Prussia and on January 16 (23) concluded the Whitehall Treaty of Alliance with her in 1756. This alliance forced Austria to move closer to
France, which had previously been an implacable enemy of the Austrian Habsburgs.
France, which received no benefit from an alliance with Prussia in the war for
The Austrian inheritance and fearing an excessive strengthening of Prussia, on April 20 (May 1) at Versailles concluded a defensive alliance with Austria.
The rapprochement of England with Prussia forced Russia to reconsider its foreign policy orientation towards an alliance with England. December 31, 1756 (January 11
1757), Russia joined the Treaty of Versailles and concluded with
Austria Petersburg Union Treaty of 1757. Thus, against the background of the Anglo-French colonial rivalry, two coalitions were formed. Against
Austria, France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony performed in Prussia; the imperial Diet in Regensburg also decided to send imperial troops against Prussia. On the side of Prussia were England and some north German states (Hanover, Hesse-Kassel, Braunschweig-Wolfenbuettel and others).

Austria set itself the goal of returning Silesia, Frederick II wanted to take possession of Saxony in order to exchange it for Bohemia (Bohemia), put his brother Henry on the ducal throne of Courland and make Poland a vassal to Prussia. The government of Elizabeth Petrovna sought to stop the dangerous expansion of Prussia in the Baltic States, to expand the borders towards Poland, meaning to connect the trade routes of the Baltic and
The Black Seas, Poland should be compensated at the expense of Prussia; at the same time, Russia stipulated its non-participation in the war against England and Hanover. France sought to capture Hanover, Sweden - Prussian Pomerania.

Campaign of 1756

Prussia had a well-trained army of 150,000, the North German states fielded 47,000 men; England gave subsidies.
The anti-Prussian coalition had twice the strength, but in 1756 it was not ready for war. Taking advantage of this, Frederick with a 95,000-strong army suddenly invaded Saxony on August 17 (28), 1756. The Saxon army (18 thousand people) was surrounded in the Pirn fortified camp and surrendered on October 4 (15). Part of the Austrian army, located at Colin, was attacked on September 21 (October 1) by Frederick at Lobozitz and retreated across the river
Eger.

Campaign of 1757

In the campaign of 1757, Frederick decided to take advantage of the slowness in deploying enemy forces and defeat the Austrians in Bohemia before the allies arrived. In East Prussia, the 30-thousandth corps of G. Lewald was left.
In April, the Prussian army moved into Bohemia. Braun's Austrian army, which occupied positions on the Eger River, withdrew. April 21 (May 2) Prussian troops
(63 thousand people) approached Prague. In the Battle of Prague in 1757 on April 25 (May 6), the Austrians were defeated and blocked in Prague. But another Austrian army approached Prague under the command of L. Down (54 thousand people) and in the battle at Colin on June 7 (18), the 34-thousand-strong Prussian army was defeated. Frederick was forced to lift the blockade of Prague and leave
Bohemia. Meanwhile, Austria's allies entered the fray. In April 1757, the French army of Marshal L. Sh. D'Estré (70 thousand people) occupied
Hesse-Kassel and moved to Hanover. The Hanoverian army capitulated at Kloster-Zeven and the French occupied Hanover. Another French army under the command of Prince Ch. Soubise (24 thousand French and 33 thousand imperial troops) approached Eisenach by August 14 (25), threatening to invade
Prussia. Frederick was forced to leave Saxony and move against Soubise.
On October 25 (November 5), in the battle of Rosbach, the allies, despite the overwhelming numerical superiority, were defeated and retreated to the Rhine. As a result of this victory, the prestige of Prussia increased, and England again gathered the Hanoverian army. Frederick began the transfer of troops to Silesia, where the Austrians took Breslau and laid siege to Schweidnitz. On November 24 (December 5), at Leuthen, the Austrians suffered a major defeat and retreated to Bohemia. All Silesia was again occupied by the Prussians.

The Russian army (70 thousand people) under the command of SF Apraksin in May 1757 moved from Livonia to the Neman. Separate building V.V.
Fermora (20 thousand people) besieged Memel, which was taken on June 24 (July 5). The army continued to move to the Pregel River and on August 19 (30) at Gross-
Egersdorf defeated Lewald's corps. The possibility of an attack on
Koenigsberg, but Apraksin, under the pretext of lack of food and disease, began to retreat to Tilsit. He was removed and brought to justice, and Fermor was appointed commander-in-chief.

Swedish troops (17 thousand people) in September 1757 invaded
Pomerania, but after the retreat of the Russian army were forced to withdraw to
Stralsund and the island of Rügen. The diversion of Lewald's corps against the Swedes allowed the Russian army to invade East Prussia again. On January 2 (13), 1758, Russian troops occupied Tilsit, and on January 11 (22) -
Koenigsberg. East Prussia was incorporated into Russia.

The campaign of 1757 ended the "brilliant" period of the war for Frederick.
His decisiveness and activity gave a significant advantage over the slowness and passivity of his allies. But maneuverability alone is not enough to achieve victory.

Campaign of 1758

The campaign of 1758 was launched in February by the offensive of the Duke's army
Ferdinand of Braunschweig (30 thousand people) with the assistance of the Prussian army of Prince Heinrich against the French army of Marshal L. F. Richelieu, who replaced d'Estre. The French left Hanover and retreated beyond the Rhine. It allowed
Frederick start active action against the Russian and Austrian armies. 7
(18) April, after a two-week siege, he took Schweidnitz, and on 23 April (4 May) approached Olmutz. However, the commander-in-chief of the Austrian army Daun, acting on the communications of the Prussians, forced them to lift the siege and retreat to
Koeniggrets. The Russian army only crossed the Vistula in June and laid siege to
Kustrin. Frederick with a 15-thousandth corps set out from Bohemia and on August 10 (21) arrived in Frankfurt, where he joined up with the 18-thousandth corps of the general
Dona, and then, threatening Russian communications, forced to lift the siege of Kustrin.
On August 14 (25), a bloody battle took place at Zorndorf, in which both sides suffered heavy losses. Frederick retreated to Kustrin, and the Russian troops to Landsberg.

Austrian and imperial troops launched actions against the army
Henry of Prussia in Saxony. Frederick hurried to help, but on October 3 (14) was defeated at Hochkirch. After an unsuccessful attempt to blockade Leipzig and
Dresden's army went to North Bohemia, and the Imperials to Franconia.
Prussian troops were stationed in Saxony, Silesia and Pomerania. After a month of inactivity, Fermor decided to besiege Kolberg, but the siege was carried out hesitantly and clumsily and at the end of September was lifted. The Russian army withdrew across the Vistula.

The Hanoverian army defeated the French army on June 1 (12)
Condé, who replaced Richelieu, at Klosterkamp and on June 12 (23) - at Krefeld.
The French government strengthened the Rhine army, Clermont was replaced by Marshal L. J. Contad. Soubise's army entered Hesse, threatening Hanover, and the Duke of Brunswick withdrew back across the Rhine to Münster.

The unsuccessful outcome of the 1758 campaign caused mutual distrust among the members of the anti-Prussian coalition. Russia and Austria, not without reason, suspected the French government of intending to conclude a separate peace. Under their pressure, the head of the French government, Cardinal Bernie, was replaced by the Duke of Choiseul. A new agreement was signed between France and
Austria on the continuation of the war with Prussia, which later joined
Russia.

Campaign of 1759

By the beginning of 1759, the Allies had an army of 352 thousand people,
Prussia and the North German states - 222 thousand people. In April, the Russian army moved towards the Oder. On June 18 (29), the new commander-in-chief P.S. Saltykov arrived. The Prussian general Wedel, who replaced the Don, tried to detain the Russian army, but was defeated on July 12 (23) at Palzig.
Russian troops occupied Frankfurt, posing a threat to Berlin. Frederick hastily moved towards Frankfurt, joining forces of Prince Heinrich and other troops along the way. The Austrian corps G.E.
Loudona. Russian-Austrian troops took up a position on the right bank of the Oder near
Kunersdorf, where a battle took place on August 1 (12), in which the Prussian army was defeated. The victory opened the way to Berlin, but Down refused to help, and Saltykov did not dare to advance on his own. Austrian troops were indecisive in Saxony, and the Russian army, after fruitless maneuvers on both banks of the Oder, withdrew to Poznan.

The French armies of Contada and Broy (who replaced Soubise), taking into account the experience of the previous campaign, united and moved to Hesse-Kassel, but on July 21 (August 1) at Minden were defeated and retreated to the Main.

Campaign of 1760

In 1760, Frederick was barely able to recruit an army of 100-120 thousand people against the Russian-Austrian and imperial troops (220 thousand people). According to the plan of action, the Russian army was supposed to advance to the Oder and at Breslavl to connect with Laudon's corps, and then maneuver so that the army
Dauna could operate in the rear of the Prussian army. Saltykov spoke very late. Laudon, having won a victory over Fouquet's Prussian corps at Landeshut on July 12 (23), was in no hurry to join and on July 15 (26) occupied Glatz. 26 July
(August 6) Saltykov approached Breslavl, but found him occupied by the Prussians and withdrew to the right bank of the Oder to Auras. Frederick and Down, meanwhile, were mutually exhausting the troops with useless marches and counter-marches in Silesia and Saxony.
Loudon's corps, which was going to connect with Down, was defeated on August 4 (15).
Lignitz. Saltykov, convinced of the futility of attempts to unite with the Austrians, at the suggestion of St. Petersburg, prepared an expedition to Berlin.
For this, troops were allocated under the command of Z. G. Chernyshev and the mobile detachment of G. G. Totleben. On September 24 (October 5), Chernyshev's detachment, followed by P. I. Panin's division and F. M. Lasi's Austro-Saxon corps, marched towards Berlin. On the night of September 28 (October 9), the Prussian garrison left Berlin, which was occupied by Russian troops. On October 1 (12), in connection with the approach of 70 thousand Prussian troops, by order of the commander-in-chief, Berlin was abandoned, after which the army was withdrawn to Landsberg. Due to illness
Saltykov A.B. Buturlin was appointed commander-in-chief on September 18 (29).

After the Russians left Berlin, Frederick moved to Saxony and on October 23 (November 3) at Torgau defeated Down, who retreated to
Dresden. The campaign of 1760 did not produce decisive results. Both sides were exhausted. France proposed to convene a peace congress, but met with resistance from Russia, which believed that Prussia was still not sufficiently weakened. England did not compromise, seeking to consolidate the colonial conquests. Frederick decided to continue the war in order to retain Silesia.

Campaign of 1761

During the summer of 1761, Frederick maneuvered between the Russian and Austrian armies, no serious battles took place. The Russian army reached Lignitz and on August 14 (25) united with Laudon's corps. After three weeks of fruitless negotiations with the Austrian command, Buturlin, leaving Chernyshev's 26,000-strong corps to assist the Austrian troops, withdrew to Poznan. Frederick, who had previously covered Breslau and Schweidnitz, moved to the Neisse River. Taking advantage of this, Laudon took Schweidnitz by storm, after which the opponents settled down for the winter: the Austrians - in Upper Silesia,
Chernyshev - in Glac, the Prussians - in the Breslavl region. In Pomerania, the corps of P.A.Rumyantsev successfully operated, despite the lack of forces and the threat from the rear from the Prussian corps of Platen. With the assistance of a squadron under the command of A.I. Polyansky and Swedish ships, Russian troops blockaded Kolberg, which surrendered on December 5 (16). The actions of the opponents in Saxony and Westphalia were insignificant. In August, France entered into a family pact with Spain, Naples and Parma - states
Bourbon dynasty. Spain went to war with England. Portugal sided with England.

Crucial moment

As a result of the campaign of 1761, the position of Prussia became difficult. she lost half of Silesia, was cut off from Poland, where Prussia bought food; with the capture of Kohlberg, Russian troops fortified in Pomerania and threatened Brandenburg. The changed government in England, refused further subsidies to Prussia. However, on December 25, 1761 (January 5, 1762), Empress Elizabeth Petrovna died, and Peter
III, being an ardent admirer of Frederick II, ended the war and returned
Prussia conquered territories by Russian troops without any compensation. On April 24 (May 5), 1762, a Russian-Prussian union treaty was concluded.
Buturlin's army was returned to Russia, and Chernyshev's corps was ordered to join the Prussian army for action against Austria.
At the same time, Peter III began preparations for a war with Denmark over Schleswig.
The closest consequence of these events was the withdrawal of Sweden from the war on May 11 (22)
1762. The new orientation of Russia's foreign policy ran counter to the interests of the state and the nobility. Palace coup June 28 (July 9)
1762 put an end to the dangerous designs of Peter III. However, Catherine II, abandoning the alliance with Prussia, did not renew the war. Peace with Prussia was confirmed, East Prussia remained with Prussia. Chernyshev's corps was recalled. Catherine did not want the complete defeat of Prussia, so as not to strengthen
Austria.

Frederick II, using the temporary presence of Chernyshev's corps as part of the Prussian army, successfully acted against Down in Silesia and laid siege to
Schweidnitz, who surrendered on September 28 (October 9). Henry of Prussia on October 18 (29) at Freiberg defeated the imperial troops. The Prussians occupied almost all of Saxony. On October 23 (November 3), a preliminary peace was signed between Prussia and France, and on November 13 (24), an armistice was concluded between
Prussia and Austria.

Peace treaties

The war in the colonies developed successfully for England, which captured
Canada, part of Louisiana, Florida, most of India. In November 1762, peace negotiations began between France and England, and on January 30 (February 10), the Paris Peace Treaty was concluded, to which they joined
Spain and Portugal. Austria, left alone, could not continue the war. Between Prussia, on the one hand, and Austria and Saxony, on the other, the Treaty of Hubertusburg was signed on February 4 (15), which confirmed Prussia's possession of Silesia and the County of Glatz.

The Seven Years' War did not change the political map of Europe, but significantly influenced the balance of power of its main participants. Won the most
England, which significantly expanded its colonial possessions at the expense of
France and Spain and became the strongest maritime power. France's international prestige has dropped significantly. Military weakness and economic exhaustion intensified the internal crisis of absolutism that led to the Great French Revolution. Austria, which did not achieve its goals, became an ally
Russia in the fight against Turkey. The Seven Years' War was the first step towards the future hegemony of Prussia in Germany.

In the 17th-18th centuries, Prussia and Austria, the largest states of Germany, gradually rise. The Peace of Westphalia led to the expansion of the territory of Prussia - Brandenburg and to the strengthening of this state, which was formed in the Middle Ages from separate principalities located in different parts of Germany. The core of Prussia was Brandenburg, where from the beginning of the 15th century the Hohenzollern dynasty ruled, which spun off in 1227, owning the burgrave of Nuremberg. In 1415 the Burggrave of Hohenzollern of Nuremberg received the Mark Brandenburg and the title of Elector from the Emperor. His successor, Frederick II, subdued Berlin in 1442, depriving it of city autonomy. Already in the middle of the XIV century, the rulers of Brandenburg were among the most influential princes-electors who participated in the election of the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. The Brandenburg Mark originated and expanded as a military colony. From a fortified outpost located on the banks of the Elbe, the German knights launched an "onslaught to the east", enslaving or pushing back the Slavic tribes living here. The young knightly squires who took part in the seizures of the eastern territories were called "jungé herr". Many of them received estates on the conquered land, their possessions began to be called "cadets". Over time, their heirs, that is, all the large landowners of the country, began to be called junkers. The second constituent part of this state - the Prussian Duchy arose in 1525 as a result of secularization by Grandmaster Albrecht of Brandenburg from the Hohenzollern dynasty, the lands of the Teutonic Order, which conquered and Germanized the Prussian population of the Baltic. In 1618, after the death of his son and successor, Albrecht-Friedrich, who had no heirs, the Duchy of Prussia was united with Brandenburg.

During the Thirty Years War, the troops of the Catholic League, the Swedes and the Emperor devastated this country, as well as other territories in Germany. Bad soil, devastated villages, impenetrable forests around Berlin and Potsdam did not create favorable conditions for this territory to become the center of the formation of a strong state. But in 1640, a twenty-year-old came to the throne of Brandenburg-Prussia Friedrich Wilhelm, who made great efforts to bring out of the ruin and strengthen his state. The Germans consider him the founder of Prussian power. He spent part of his youth in Holland, where he became acquainted with the successful economic activities of the Dutch and adopted their experience. He attracted Dutch colonists to Prussia, who founded agricultural farms with pedigree cattle here, helped to drain the swamps, and create a network of canals. The channel connecting the Elbe and Oder rivers is named after Friedrich-Wilhelm.

Frederick Wilhelm showed religious tolerance and Lutherans, Calvinists from the Catholic principalities of Germany, as well as Catholics and Jews moved to Prussia. About 20 thousand Huguenots from France moved to Prussia, forced to leave it due to persecution after the abolition of the Edict of Nantes by Louis XIV. The bulk of the settlers consisted of highly skilled artisans and wealthy merchants. They brought their capital, their organizational and technical skills, and skill to Prussia. In the small towns of Brandenburg and East Prussia, foreign colonists founded factories for the production of woolen and cotton fabrics, silk, and velvet. The production of edged weapons and firearms, glass, leather, metal products was improved, the manufacture of clocks, mirrors and other products was adjusted.

Frederick William's support for industry and trade was largely due to the fact that he needed funds to support the standing army he had created. The military colonial character inherent in Prussia from the very beginning was one of the origins of Prussian militarism. In order to carry out an "onslaught to the east", to seize new lands, the German conquerors had to have at their disposal military forces sufficient to achieve these goals. After their advance to the east was stopped, Prussia needed a strong army to keep the conquered local population in obedience, as well as for further seizures. According to the Westphalian Peace Treaty, Friedrich Wilhelm managed to get Eastern Pomerania, several spiritual principalities and Magdeburg.

Friedrich-Wilhelm laid the foundation for the military-economic rule, which became characteristic feature the Prussian state. The central administration, which he created and headed, was an extensive bureaucratic system associated primarily with serving the army. Under him, a bank was established in Berlin, with the help of which he controlled the state of public finances and their spending. Friedrich-Wilhelm contributed to the development of public education, during his reign many primary schools were opened, a library in Berlin. At the same time, in 1653, he confirmed the right of the landowners-junkers to serfs and announced that a peasant who cannot prove the validity of his complaint against the master is subject to severe punishment.

His successor Frederick I(1688-1713) supported Austria in the War of the Spanish Succession and for this received the royal title from Emperor Leopold I. The coronation took place on January 18, 1701 in Königsberg. Frederick I, like his predecessor, did a lot for the development of science, art, education. The buildings erected under him determined the architectural appearance of Berlin until the beginning of the twentieth century. The most significant event in the development of science and culture was the creation in 1700 of the Academy of Sciences in Berlin. Its founder and first president was Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (1646-1716), a great mathematician, one of the founders of differential calculus, philosopher, and linguist. The revival and growth of the economy in the second half of the 17th and 18th centuries had a beneficial effect on the development of culture.

The strengthening of Brandenburg-Prussia was facilitated not only by the reign of such outstanding monarchs as Frederick William and Frederick I, but also by the movement of world trade routes from the Mediterranean Sea to the shores of the Atlantic Ocean due to the great geographical discoveries. The regions of southern and central Germany, instead of the former economic orientation towards Italy and France, were now forced to seek access to the shores of the North Sea. All the high-water rivers of Germany: the Rhine, Weser, Oder, Elbe, flowing into the North and Baltic Seas, flowed through the territories belonging to Brandenburg, therefore foreign trade of the industrial regions of Silesia, Saxony, the Czech Republic, and southwestern Germany largely depended on his policy. The large landowners of northeastern Germany were in an advantageous position. The rise in prices for bread on international markets, as a result of the development of industry in European countries, prompted the Prussian landowners-junkers to expand their holdings at the expense of lands belonging to peasants and rural communities.

Son and successor of Frederick I, King of Prussia Frederick William I(1713-40) focused on strengthening the army. Historians usually cite such information that he preferred tall soldiers and recruited them even from abroad. The nickname "sergeant major on the throne" stuck to him. Under him, the central administration, which served as a bureaucratic appendage to the army, was reorganized into the "supreme general administration of finance, troops and domains", which was primarily concerned with ensuring the regular receipt of taxes. This numerous ramified bureaucratic apparatus was directly subordinate to the king.

Frederick William I, like his predecessors on the throne, contributed to the development of industry, trade and the growth of funds in the state treasury. Unlike his contemporary, the French king Louis XV, he hated pomp and extravagance. However, Frederick William I was distinguished by a despotic character, he regulated the life of his subjects to the smallest detail, and if he was in a bad mood, he could hit with a stick, which he always carried with him. He was especially disliked by his subjects, who dressed in imported clothes. He treated scientists, poets, and writers with contempt.

In this respect, his son became the complete opposite of him. Frederick II(1740-86), known in history as Frederick the Great. At his residence, Castle Sanssouci, which he built near Potsdam, Frederick II spent time with writers and scholars; evenings were usually devoted to music. Frederick II supported the work of the outstanding German writer and playwright Gothold Ephraim Lessing(1729-81), who developed educational ideas in German literature. Voltaire came to him as a guest of honor, whose ideas Frederick II tried to follow. But the too proud king, who inherited despotic personality traits from his father, and his guest, a satirical philosopher, did not agree in character and soon parted almost as enemies.

Frederick II left behind many works of a philosophical, historical and political content. He became known as the "philosopher king". Like the French enlighteners, he considered a social contract to be the basis of state power, but was of the opinion that this contract transferred all the rights of the people to the government, and called himself "the first servant of the state." In the spirit of enlightened absolutism, Frederick II undertook a reform of the judicial system. The Special Commission created by him, from the standpoint of educational ideas, revised and united all the previous Prussian laws. As a result of her work, the "Frederick's Code" was created, which was the basis for legal proceedings. The king advocated the complete independence of the court from the administration, declared that judges must strictly adhere to the law. Once he himself set an example of obedience to the court in a dispute with a miller, who did not want to demolish his mill, located near the royal palace of Sanssouci, and disturbed the king's peace. The court ruled in favor of the miller and dismissed the king's claim to demolish the mill. Of course, such a court decision was ostentatious, but nevertheless indicated the king's intention to support the principle of the independence of judges.

In the field of public education, Frederick II issued a law requiring children between the ages of five and thirteen to attend school. However, little money was allocated for the organization of schools. As a rule, disabled soldiers who were dismissed were appointed teachers as a reward for service and in return for the issuance of a pension.

Reflecting the interests, above all of the Prussian Junkers, at the same time, Frederick II tried, in the spirit of enlightened absolutism, to alleviate the situation of the peasants. And before him, the Prussian kings took care of maintaining a constant number of peasant households as objects of taxation and suppliers of recruits. The landowners were exempted from paying taxes, so the ruin and landlessness of the peasants reduced the state's revenues. Back in 1699, Frederick William I published a decree prohibiting the eviction of peasants from the land "without a good reason and without immediate replacement of the expelled by another." After the Seven Years' War of 1756-63. having ruined many Prussian peasants, Frederick II ordered the landlords to rebuild thousands of peasant households, gave the peasants part of the horses of his cavalry and grain prepared for the army for sowing. Frederick II contributed to the spread of a new potato culture for that time, distributing it to the peasants in carts. He improved the position of the state peasants. The decree of 1777 guaranteed the right of ownership and inheritance of their land plots. The landlords were forbidden to subject the peasants to corporal punishment. But all these measures only slightly weakened serfdom.

Frederick II considered it necessary to maintain the caste nature of the nobility, therefore he prohibited marriages between nobles and persons of non-noble origin. So that the nobles served in the army and did not spend money on travel, they were not allowed to travel abroad. To increase financial income in the state treasury, Frederick II developed a system of indirect taxes and customs duties. The tax burden imposed on the population of Prussia at this time was unmatched in Europe. It was under Frederick II that absolutism in Prussia reached its highest development.

Traditionally, for the Prussian monarchs, Frederick II was involved in a lot of state affairs, controlled the expenditure Money, the financial condition of the treasury. Like his predecessors, he contributed to the settlement of desert areas by immigrants from other countries. Colonists from different parts of Germany flocked to Prussia. The area of ​​cultivated land in the kingdom under Frederick II increased significantly. Measures were taken to drain the swamps, improve communication lines, and develop the manufacturing industry. Measures were taken to restrict the export of raw materials abroad. Support was still provided to manufactories, but the shops were not liquidated.

Traditionally, for the Prussian kings, Frederick II paid the greatest attention to the army. Under him, the Prussian army grew to 186 thousand soldiers and claimed first place in Europe. Its maintenance absorbed two thirds of all government spending. During the reign of Frederick II, rivalry between Prussia and Austria begins. During the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), the Prussian king claimed the Hohenzollerns' rights to Silesia, which had previously been captured by Austria from Poland, and occupied it with his troops. The acquisition of Silesia increased the Prussian possessions by one third. The expansion of the country's territory made it possible for the cadets to acquire new estates, to get new positions in the military-administrative apparatus. Austria could not come to terms with the loss of Silesia and created a coalition against Prussia, which included France, Russia, Sweden, Saxony and other German states. On the side of Prussia, England took part in the war, which by this time had already begun hostilities with France due to hostile clashes between colonists in North America. Frederick II, without waiting for the declaration of war by the coalition, invaded Saxony. The war that began in this way is known in history as the Seven Years (1756-63).

In 1756 Frederick II forced the Saxon army to surrender, seized Dresden and brought the whole of Saxony under his rule. V next years he won victories over French and Austrian forces, especially his victory at Rosbach in Saxony, but he suffered a heavy defeat at Kunersdorf in East Prussia from the combined Russian and Austrian forces. The Russian army entered Berlin. In 1761, the Russian Empress Elizabeth died, and Peter III, who was an admirer of Frederick II, ascended the throne. He returned part of his troops to Russia, and ordered the other part to go over to the side of the Prussian king. Silesia was again occupied by Prussia. In addition, Frederick II captured the Polish region, located in the lower reaches of the Vistula, and thereby eliminated the strip of his main possessions - East Prussia and Brandenburg. This annexation took place under the first partition of the Kingdom of Poland in 1772.

By the end of the eighteenth century, the feudal-absolutist system, constant wars, the unbearable burden of taxes on the country's population began to restrain its economic development. Prussia, like other German states, found itself powerless in the face of the military onslaught of revolutionary France.

Prussia is one of the most historically controversial states in continental Europe. On the one hand, we have a once powerful state, under the flag of which all Germany was united. On the other hand, the kingdom had not only ups, but also downs. The country was disbanded after the fall of the Third Reich, and previously suffered under the yoke of the Teutons. What is the legacy left to us by the history of Prussia?

Geographical position

Unlike most of the states of the Old World, Prussia is looked for on the map for purely political reasons. The linguistic feature, so common to define other states, works very poorly here, as well as in general in the countries of Germanic culture.

The location in the north of the country played an important role for Prussia. It was there that the first settlements appeared. Throughout history, the borders of Prussia have changed several times - from a (relatively) small duchy to the main part of the Second Reich of Bismarck.

The neighboring countries - Lithuania (Lithuanians are blood brothers to the Prussians more than the Germans) and Poland had a huge influence on Prussia. The second built many intrigues to its northwestern neighbor during his independence. Poland has repeatedly subjugated its territories.

Finding the main lands of this perished state, Prussia, is now easy. They belong to the Russian Federation and are the Kaliningrad region. Its center is the old Konigsberg, since 1946 known as Kaliningrad.

Ancient times

Attila, the leader of the Huns, played a huge role in the emergence of Prussia, as in all European history. It was the emergence of his empire that forced the Aestians living on the shores of the Baltic Sea to rise. Ancient authors also wrote about them. The Estians left a free territory for the Prussians, who until then were located only within the framework of modern Kaliningrad.

The history of Prussia in the form in which we know it now is impossible without the appearance of the German brothers Brutin and Videwood. Their existence remains in question, but it is the presence of such rulers who created a strong society with developed social relations from the tribe and built it explains the sharp leap in the development of the Prussians. As a result, in cultural tradition they turned out to be brothers to the Germans, and not to the closest peoples - the Poles and Lithuanians.

Christianization

A small Polish principality from the 11th century tried to expand its lands at the expense of the pagan Prussians. However, they were extremely successful advocates. Perhaps the territory of Prussia would have remained free from the games of feudal Europe, if the legendary Teutonic Order had not invaded it under the pretext of Christianization (at the invitation of the Polish prince and the personal blessing of the Pope).

The Lithuanian order received its own state, in which it was fully authorized to carry out the Christianization of the pagan population, which turned out to be robbery, torture and violence for the Prussians.

Expansion of the territory

Thanks to the active build-up of power directly by the Teutons themselves and the absorption of others by them, Prussia itself expanded on the map. At some point, most of the Baltic states belonged to the state of the Teutonic Order.

Internally, this country was a tough Catholic state with, to put it mildly, a huge bias towards church power. In fact, the Teutonic Order was subordinate (through the master) to the Pope, so the state was under the complete control of the Vatican.

Kingdom creation

The state of the Teutonic Order existed until the sixteenth century. It fought many wars - sometimes successful ones, expanding their state, but the closer the timeline to modernity, the more often the Teutons were inferior on the battlefield.

Their defeat in the Thirteen Years' War against Poland became especially grave. This was the final blow to the Teutonic Order - the desire to maintain power and escape the wrath of the Pope. Master Albrecht of Brandenburg adopted Protestantism, thanks to which Prussia became a secular state. He also became a vassal of the Polish king. The former master did a lot of things useful for the state. For example, he carried out social reform and opened the first university. In addition, thanks to him, Prussia is the first state in history with the Protestant faith dominating at the official level.

The Duchy of Prussia did not last long - Albrecht's son turned out to be sick and after the death of his father could not accept the throne, and then suddenly died. The next heir to the duchy was

Kingdom of Prussia within Poland

Having received new lands at his disposal, the ruler thought about what Prussia would become. The kingdom turned out to be the best option, as it significantly increased the prestige of the monarch. Now he was twice a ruler.

Like any kingdom within a kingdom, Prussia was quite independent. She had her own laws, her own court. Even its army functioned separately from the Polish one. In addition, the territory of the state grew rapidly, as the king of Prussia understood that only by gathering powerful and strong support around them, they could resist Poland and return to their German origins.

However, such drastic measures were not required. At the time of the formation of Prussia as a German state, Poland was waging a war with Sweden, and she needed the help of the allies. The Brandenburg prince Friedrich Wilhelm I agreed to lend a helping hand to the neighbors on the condition that he received Prussia - the land that he, as the largest German prince, considered originally German, and therefore his own.

Thanks to this deal, the principality of Brandenburg-Prussia was formed, which was destined to play a huge role in the future in the political life of Europe.

Independent Kingdom of Prussia

Thanks to his efforts and the legacy of his father, the son of the Brandenburg prince, conquering more and more lands, and with them influence, was crowned. Frederick I ascended the throne in 1701, demonstrating to the whole world that Prussia is now an independent kingdom.

The maximum historical dawn of Prussia came during the reign of Frederick. He is still considered one of the greatest kings of Europe, since he carried out many reforms - he strengthened the economy of Prussia, thanks to which the treasury was able to finance the army with astronomical amounts. He also made profound changes in education, state apparatus and military affairs.

Thanks to a huge number of wars, in which the King of Prussia for some reason needed to intervene, his state was overgrown with more and more lands, creating the Prussians a reputation as one of the leading nations of the Old World. Prussia lost only once - Russian empire took a part of the Baltics after being defeated in battles against it during the Seven Years' War. However, even this defeat was not serious - according to the peace treaty between Frederick II and Peter III, these lands returned to the Prussians very soon.

Unfortunately, after a powerful flowering, a rapid withering followed. The new king, Frederick II, could not retain power over such a huge state. His reign significantly weakened Prussia, but his son marked the final loss of Prussia's leading role in Europe.

But you can't blame him for that either. The kings of Prussia could not have resisted the avalanche of Napoleon's army. It swept away every state on its way. After the Napoleonic era, Prussia was restored in much smaller territories, and, it seemed, she was destined to live her life to the complete loss of statehood, if not ...

German empire

The great Otto von Bismarck, oddly enough, was a Prussian. With his appearance on the political scene, one can stop naming the names of the Prussian kings - now they did not play a role in comparison with the "iron chancellor".

Bismarck was the minister-president of Prussia and an ardent admirer of the idea of ​​a unified German state. At that time, it seemed impossible - the German territory accommodated a dozen warring small states and one weakened Austria. However, Bismarck would not have been a great ruler if he had not had a clear and unshakable plan.

Step by step, he increased the power of Prussia, fighting with Denmark and taking its territory. Bismarck only needed a pretext to attack Austria, and he turned up - the military conflict in Italy led to a seven-week war between Austria and Prussia, which ended with the unification of 21 German states and the creation of the German Empire. The King of Prussia became the Kaiser, and Bismarck became his chancellor.

The German Empire became one of the main states in the world. Prussia played an important role in its composition. The kingdom fell into oblivion, but it was the Prussians who set the cultural and political tone of the empire.

Unfortunately, Wilhelm II was not that far-sighted politician. He removed Bismarck from office, and then began to pursue an internal policy full of conservatism and an aggressive foreign policy filled with harsh statements. Having quarreled with the Russian and British crowns, he led Germany to isolation.

These events served as the main prerequisites for the outbreak of the First World War, after which the Second Reich fell forever. The November Uprising tore apart Germany, making Prussia one of the smaller independent states that had to repay the debts of their big parent.

But as always happens in the history of Germany, when the chroniclers were ready to put an end to the history of a single state, a new personality appears on the horizon, destined to gather all the Germans around him.

Third Reich

As part of Prussia, it was one of the central regions.

Although Hitler did not partition Germany, an exception was made for this region.

In the state united by the Nazis, Prussia received autonomy, but it had it only on paper. In fact, the head of the autonomy was either Hitler or someone from the heads of the Reichstag - depending on the specific date.

It was in the Third Reich that Prussia finally blurred the boundaries of an independent state. Now she was part of Germany, even her former capital, Berlin, had long since ceased to be associated with her.

After the defeat of Germany in World War II, part of the territory of Prussia, including the old Konigsberg, was ceded to the USSR. The rest of the territory remained with the German Democratic Republic and the Federal Republic of Germany.

Prussia at the end of World War II

1945 Prussia was no longer anything at all. As a separate state, it did not even exist in theory, being considered the defeated Germany. This is how the sun went down for one of the most influential powers in Europe. Or is there a new unexpected turn ahead of us? After all, before the appearance of Bismarck, Prussia had prophesied the same thing.

Outcome

Prussia is one of the most controversial pages in German history. The state that laid the foundation for the existence of modern federal Germany, in fact, was independent for an incredibly small amount of time.

However, every time Prussia appeared on the map again, even in its smallest borders, she invariably proved: it is she who is the true strength of Germany, her heart and brain.

Somehow, the story again got an ironic connotation - the Prussians, the inhabitants of the Baltic states, whom we should attribute to the Lithuanians and Estonians, are Germans even more than the Germans themselves. This is the mystery of Prussian history, but also its fascination - in endless victories and defeats in the fight against paradoxes.