Female infidelity is a rather complex phenomenon. First, with the social ...
Psychoanalysis, as a theory of the human psyche and a type of therapeutic practice, was founded by Sigmund Freud at the end of the 19th century and continues to be actively developed by psychologists at the present time. Psychoanalysis has four main areas of application:
- as a theory of how the mind works;
- as a method of treating mental problems;
- as a research method;
- as a way of considering cultural and social phenomena: literature, art, cinema, theater, politics.
Psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic psychotherapy is recommended primarily for those who feel trapped by repetitive mental problems that hinder the development of potential and interfere with the experience of achieving satisfaction in relationships with loved ones, family and friends, as well as achieving success and self-realization in their work, solving everyday problems ...
Anxiety, inhibitions and depression are often signs of internal conflicts that lead to relationship difficulties, influencing personal and professional decisions. The roots of these problems are often deeper than the possibilities of natural awareness and therefore are insoluble without psychotherapy.
With the help of the psychoanalyst, the patient can gain new insights into the unconscious parts of these disorders. Talking to the analyst in a safe atmosphere leads the patient to become more aware of their previously unknown parts of the inner world (thoughts, feelings, memories, dreams), providing relief from mental pain, promoting personality development, and gaining experiences of mindfulness and self-correction that help build confidence the patient in achieving their own goals in life. These positive effects psychoanalysis continues to evolve after the completion of the analysis.
Freud's main discoveries and innovations
Working with patients with hysteria, Freud came to understand that in the symptoms from which the hysteria suffered, meaning is embodied, both latent and explicit. Over time, he discovered that all neurotic symptoms are messengers carrying repressed, and therefore unconscious mental contents. This prompted him to develop a "talking therapy" that revolutionized the relationship between patient and therapist. Freud saw his patients six times a week, listened and responded to what they said to him as they lay on the couch. By inviting patients to express everything that came to mind, Freud received associations that led to repressed childhood experiences, desires and fantasies, which became the source of unconscious conflicts. When these conflicts were realized, they could be analyzed, as a result of which the symptoms were dissolved. This procedure has become not only a powerful treatment, but also effective tool for the study of the human psyche, which led to the development of increasingly complex psychoanalytic theories about how the mind works, and in recent years, research in a new field - neuropsychoanalysis.
Freud's early discoveries led him to some innovative concepts:
Unconscious... Psychic life goes beyond what we can directly be aware of, and beyond what we could potentially become aware with an effort (the frame of the preconscious). Most of our mind is in an unconscious state, and this part is accessible only through psychoanalysis.
Early childhood experiences are a fusion of fantasy and reality; they are characterized by passionate desires, unbridled impulses and infantile anxieties. For example, hunger causes a desire to devour everything, which coexists with the fear of being devoured by others. Desires for control and independence are fused with fears of manipulation or abandonment. Separation from a caring environment threatens to be abandoned, helpless, and lonely. The love of one parent runs the risk of losing the love of the other. Early desires and fears lead to conflicts that, when they cannot be resolved, are suppressed and become unconscious.
Psychosexual development. Freud discovered that the progressive maturation of body functions, concentrated in erogenous zones (mouth, anus, genitals), occurs in parallel with the pleasures and fears obtained in relations with the caring environment, and with the development of the structures of the child's psyche.
Oedipus complex is the main complex of all neuroses. The child between the ages of four and six becomes aware of the sexual nature of the relationship of the parents from which he is excluded. The feelings of jealousy and rivalry that have arisen should be clarified, along with questions about who is a man and who is a woman, whom to love and whom to marry, how the child is conceived and how the birth takes place, what the child can or cannot do compared to adults. ... Solving these difficult questions will shape the character of the adult mind and superego.
crowding out the force that holds in unconscious dangerous fantasies related with unresolvedchildhood conflicts.
Dreaming as a fulfillment of desires... Most often, dreams express the fulfillment of infantile sexual desires or fantasies that are hidden in absurd, strange and meaningless scenes that require analysis to reveal their unconscious meaning. Freud called the interpretation of dreams the royal road to the unconscious.
Transfer is the ubiquitous tendency of the human mind to consider and define any new situation in the patterns of previous experience. In psychoanalysis, transference occurs when the patient views the analyst as a parental figure with whom major infantile conflicts or traumas can be resurrected, as if in the original parent-child relationship.
Free associations describe the emergence of thoughts, feelings and fantasies when they are free from the constraints of fear, guilt and shame.
Ego, Id and Super-Ego... The ego is a structure of the psyche, determined by consciousness, carrying out repression, integrating and consolidating various impulses and tendencies before they are translated into action. The id is the unconscious part of the mind, the site of repressed and unknowable traces of early life memory. The superego is the leader of the mind and conscience, the keeper of the prohibitions to be adhered to and the ideals to strive for.
The development of psychoanalysis after Freud. Modern psychoanalysis
Classical and modern Freudians... Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) created a model of the psyche with several basic theoretical assumptions: mental life is powered by the energy of two basic drives (in the early theory, this is the sexual drive and the drive for self or self-preservation; in the subsequent revision, this drive for life and the drive for death, or libido and aggression). These drives reflect certain requirements of the body to the psyche, expressed in desires and needs, striving for certain objects that can bring satisfaction. The results of these interactions (including ideas about important objects and relationships) structure the entire psyche, creating more and more complex complexes and formations, which are ultimately divided into three main parts. In his first topographic model, Freud spoke of systems of the unconscious, preconscious, and conscious; in the second structural model, he already spoke about the Ego, Id and Super-Ego. The structures of the psyche regulate the energy of drives in accordance with the principle of pleasure (homeostasis). The metapsychology of psychoanalysis expresses mental functions in connection with their dynamic (disks), economic (energy), topical (structure) aspects.
(1873-1933) and the Hungarian School of Psychoanalysis emphasized the importance of considering and recognizing real childhood trauma, specific early mother-child relationships involving "language confusion" (confusion between a child's need for attachment and the sexual needs of an adult) that seriously affect mental development. and later on psychopathology. Ferenczi focused on the reciprocal, intersubjective processes between patient and analyst, and on the important role of honesty and inner work(introspection) analyst in analytic interaction.
Ego psychology... Anna Freud (1895-1982), Heinz Hartmann (1884-1970) and some other analysts focused on the activity of the conscious and unconscious Ego, on the special role of the Ego in unconscious defenses, the influence of defenses on mental processes. Hartmann described the conflict-free zones of the Ego, which perform such important tasks as awareness, motor function, logical thinking, speech, sensory perception, and reality testing are all vital functions that can be re-involved in neurotic conflicts. Through the systematic analysis of defenses, psychoanalysis focuses on strengthening the patient's ego in order to increase control of impulses, to enhance the ability to resolve conflicts, the ability to tolerate disappointments and painful affects. Hartmann added genetic and adaptation models to the four Freudian metapsychological models.
Classic and modern Kleinians... Melanie Klein (1882-1960) conceptualized early infancy when primitive impulses begin to emerge as experiences of early object relations. The inward death drive is perceived as an attacking force and causes persecutory anxiety (fear of annihilation). Destructive impulses are fantastically placed outside (projection) into a disappointing object (bad chest), accompanied by fear of retribution. On the other hand, the satisfying object (good breast) is idealized and split off from the bad object. This first phase is called the paranoid-schizoid position, which is characterized by splitting, denial, omnipotence, idealization, and projection and introjection. The growing ability of the ego to integrate leads to depressive anxiety, when destructive impulses damaging a good object (chest) generate a desire for reparation (reparation). This second phase is called the depressive position. Modern Kleinians have recognized that these phases are not limited to infancy, but form a continuous dynamic in the psyche between the change of the paranoid-schizoid, then the depressive position.
Bion branch of the Kleinian school... Wilfred Bion (1897-1979), continuing research and Freud and Klein developed new language for your own theory of thinking. He put forward the idea that the infant's psyche first encounters raw sensory impressions and emotions, which he called beta elements. These elements are meaningless and need to be reworked. Important is the role of the caring object (container), which accepts beta elements (content), processes and transforms them into alpha elements, and returns them to the child. The infant introjects them along with the transforming alpha function, thus developing its own alpha function - the ability to symbolize, remember, dream and reflect. Mental pathologies were considered by him in connection with disturbances in these basic functions of thinking.
Winnicott's theory of object relations. Donald Winnicott (1896-1971) described how the exercise of a “good enough mother” holding environment allows the infant to create representations of himself and others. In the transitional space between the infant and the mother, the child finds and creates transitional objects (for example, a favorite blanket) that perform the function of the mother, but are not her. This transitional or potential space between subjective internal reality and objectively perceived external reality becomes available as an internal space where it is possible to experience life, create new ideas, images, fantasies, art, and form culture. If the mother responds empathically to the infant's spontaneous gestures, the child develops a true self with the ability to play and be creative. However, if the mother constantly misinterprets the baby's gestures in accordance with her own needs, the true essence of the child remains hidden under the shield of a false self, helping to survive, but causing in subsequent development a feeling of unfulfillment, inability to be real.
French psychoanalysis developed rapidly in disputes with Jacques Lacan (1901-1981) and his ideas (the meaning of language, phallus, desire and the Other, concepts of the imaginary, symbolic and [unattainable] real). His call for a return to Freud initiated a serious debate and development of Freud's basic concepts, and ultimately established the primary role of Freudian metapsychology in understanding the human psyche. This, in turn, fruitfully influenced the development of a new concept of the theory of seduction, an emphasis on the drives of life and death, and the theory of narcissism. The recognition of the importance of the theory of drives indicated an emphasis on sexuality, subjectivity, the language of desire, the structuring function of the Oedipus complex, in particular with attention to the role of the third in relationships. This led to the idea of a tertiary process in which unconscious (primary) and conscious (secondary) processes coexist and creatively combine.
Self-psychology was founded in the United States by Heinz Kohut (1913-1981), who explored the individual sense of self, in particular in relation to the development and regulation of narcissism. He emphasized the important role of caring that the parents (and later the analyst) give the child, empathically reflecting the child's states and allowing himself to be idealized (idealized, twin transferences), thereby supporting the child (later the patient) as a self-object until the child learns ( internalizes) its regulatory functions. In parallel with the structural model of Freud (Ego, Id and Super-Ego) and the theory of drives, Kohut proposed his own model of the structure of the Self.
Psychoanalytic method
Psychoanalysis is a treatment by talking, based on the method of free association, a fundamental rule when the patient is invited to express whatever comes to mind, without such restrictions as: appropriateness, decency, feelings of shame or guilt and other variants of disapproval. Adhering to this rule, the patient's thought processes create amazing connections, open the interconnections of desires and defenses inaccessible to consciousness, lead to the unconscious roots of hitherto insoluble conflicts, which begin to manifest and take shape in the transference. The analyst listens to associations using a similar mental process - free floating attention, when the analyst follows the patient's messages, noticing - sometimes as in daydreams - his own associations, in response to the patient's situation (countertransference reactions, that is, reactions to the patient's transference).
The integration of all the information received occurs through the analyst's inner work, forming a picture of a transference-countertransference situation, which reveals in the therapeutic relationship a certain gestalt (unconscious fantasy), which is ultimately experienced by both analyst and patient. Through the analyst's interventions - interpretations of what is happening here and now in the session - a new understanding (insight) of the patient's suffering will arise. Reapplying a new understanding in similar situations in which similar conflicts arise helps the patient to recognize the thought processes that generate conflicts. By resolving these conflicts and placing them in perspective, the patient's mind is freed from old inhibitions, opening up room for new choices.
Setting
The method described above is best applied in a classical setting: the patient lies comfortably on the couch, speaking whatever comes to mind, without being distracted by the analyst, who usually sits behind the couch. This allows both participants in psychoanalysis to immerse themselves in listening and feeling what is happening in the session. The patient plunges into his inner world, reviving memories, returning to important experiences, talking about dreams and fantasies - enduring everything that will help to shed light on the patient's life, his story, the work of the mind.
Analytical sessions usually last 45-50 minutes. All agreements on conditions (schedule, frequency of visits, fees per session) are negotiated from the very beginning of the analysis and are binding on both the patient and the analyst. The timing for the end of the analysis is difficult to predict - on average, a classical analysis can be expected from three to five years. However, the patient and the analyst are free to decide at any time whether to interrupt or discontinue the analysis.
Classical psychoanalytic therapy is designed to fulfill the potential of the adult neurotic patient, who is generally adapted to the requirements of modern life and work. In order to deepen the analytic process, psychoanalytic sessions are carried out three, four or five times a week. The high frequency of psychoanalytic treatment is also used to treat psychopathologies such as severe narcissistic and borderline personality disorders.
Psychoanalytic or psychodynamic psychotherapy with adults at a lower frequency (once or twice a week) can be done face-to-face. The goals of therapy in this case are more focused on solving certain kinds of problems: difficulties in relationships or work, depression or anxiety disorders. Even if transference and countertransference reactions occur in psychoanalysis, they are not interpreted by considering and solving directly current problems in the patient's life. Sometimes both participants in psychoanalytic psychotherapy may decide at some stage of treatment to deepen the work and switch to psychoanalysis with a higher frequency.
Psychoanalysis is one of the most famous and influential psychological theories, put forward and developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries by the Austrian psychologist and neurologist Sigmund Freud (Freud). The theory-based treatment for mental disorders is also called psychoanalysis.
The fundamentals of the concept of classical psychoanalysis by Freud can be broadly summarized as follows.
The mental sphere in the structure of a human personality is described by a three-component (three-level) model (the structure includes "It", "I" and "Super-I", that is, subconsciousness, consciousness and superconsciousness).
The behavior and development of a person's personality is largely determined by internal unconscious drives, which, for the most part, are completely irrational.
As a result of a person's awareness of these drives, attempts to resist arise, thus, various (quite definite and well typified) defense mechanisms are formed.
Personality, in addition to the structural interdependence of elements common to all, determines the optional (that is, individual) development, mainly the events of early childhood.
Internal conflicts between the unconscious and conscious perception of reality leads to the phenomenon of repression, which creates the basis for various mental disorders and subsequently - mental disorders reaching clinical forms. Getting rid of the influence of the repressed unconscious can be achieved through its awareness, caused by re-experiencing traumatic events with the appropriate support of a specialist psychoanalyst.
For diagnostics and influences, in addition to the analysis of observations and personal history, it is assumed the use of methods of verbalization of thoughts, free associations and interpretation of dreams.
Basic techniques of Freud's psychoanalysisIn the process of treatment, free associations, dreams and fantasies are investigated, on the basis of which the analyst draws up an idea of unconscious conflicts that determine the causes and forms of problems and symptoms observed in the analysand.
The analyst interprets the observed for the patient, and together they seek solutions. The specificity of such influences is in the form of mental interventions, which, as a rule, causes a confrontational reaction in the patient and attempts to build a defense, sometimes in a pathological form. A special type of psychic connection is formed between the analyst and the patient - a transfer. In the course of the development of this connection and the exchange of information, the patient may experience "transference" reactions and pathological ones. Sometimes such phenomena can lead to the development of specific iatrogenies (which, incidentally, also happens when using non-psychoanalytic methods of treatment).
Freud's theory had a serious impact not only on the development of psychology and psychiatry, but also on the development of other sciences and areas of human knowledge of the humanitarian circle.
Modern psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis has become and remains one of the most respected schools in psychology. The theory and method were expanded, supplemented, criticized and developed in various directions thanks to the activities and scientific creativity of former colleagues and numerous students (A. Adler, C.G. Jung). Subsequently, later currents arose and developed - the theories and methods of neo-Freudians (G. Sullivan, K. Horney, E. Fromm, V. Frankl, R. Assagioli).
In the first years of Soviet power (before the Stalinist repressions), psychoanalysis also developed well in Russia under the general patronage of L. Bronstein (Trotsky).
Currently, psychoanalysis in a broad sense is represented by more than 20 concepts mental development person. Various (in particular) approaches to psychoanalytic treatment are also proposed.
No matter how much psychoanalysis is criticized as a view and a method, there is definitely a rational kernel in it, thanks to which this method as a whole is quite successful in one form or another.
PSYCHOANALYSIS (PA)
Psychoanalysis is a psychological theory developed in the late 19th and early 20th century by the Austrian psychotherapist Sigmund Freud (Freud), which has become one of the extremely influential treatments for mental disorders based on this theory. Psychoanalysis was expanded, criticized and developed in various directions, mainly by former colleagues and students of Freud, such as A. Adler and K.G. Jung, who subsequently developed their schools of analytical and individual psychology, which, together with psychoanalysis, constituted the so-called Depth Psychology. Later, the ideas of the PA were developed by neo-Freudians, such as Erich Fromm, Karen Horney, Harry Stack Sullivan, Jacques Lacan. Huge contribution in the PA did the work of W. Reich, Anna Freud, M. Klein, D. Winnicott, H. Kohut and other psychoanalysts.
PA has been around for over a hundred years. During this time, it has undergone tremendous evolution both in theory and practice. The classical theory put forward by 3. Freud has been rethought many times. New directions began to emerge within psychoanalysis: ego psychology, the tradition of object relations, M. Klein's school, J. Lacan's structural psychoanalysis, H. Kohut's self-psychology (psychology of the Self). A lot has changed in the views on the development process. On the one hand, more attention began to be paid to the early stages of development: the emphasis shifted from the Oedipus to the preoedipal period. On the other hand, in contrast to the classical theory, which paid great attention to drives, modern psychoanalytic theories other factors began to be taken into account: the development of object relations, the development of the self, etc. In addition, the model of intrapsychic conflict was supplemented and enriched by the deficit model. It is now generally accepted that the unsuccessful, traumatic passage of the early stages of development, the violation of object relations in the mother-child dyad leads to the formation of a deficit in mental life.
Changes in views on the development of the psyche led to a revision of psychoanalytic techniques. Thus, for example, thanks to the work of ego psychologists who developed the theory of defense mechanisms, an important technical principle of analysis from surface to depth was formulated. The shift of interpretative activity from the pole of drives to the protective pole of the intrapsychic conflict made it possible to make the psychoanalytic technique of working with resistance more flexible and less painful for patients. As a result of the development of object relations theory and the revision of the theory of narcissism by self-psychology, great changes have occurred in the understanding of transference and countertransference, which has significantly expanded the range of patients who can now be helped by psychoanalytic treatment.
PA has long been an integral part of modern culture. It is not only a method of psychotherapy, but also a rather rich theoretical and literary tradition, with which the Russian-speaking reader interested in the problems of depth psychology and psychotherapy is still little familiar. For several decades, we were cut off from world psychoanalytic thought, despite the fact that at the beginning of the century psychoanalysis in our country had great prospects (this was evidenced by the fact that almost a third of the members of the International Psychoanalytic Association spoke Russian). The Russian PA had a fairly large potential both in the clinical and theoretical fields. In Russia at that time there was a developed psychiatry, which could become the basis for clinical psychoanalysis. In terms of theory, the contribution of Russian psychoanalysts can be illustrated by the fact that, largely due to the work of Sabine Spielrein, “Destruction as the cause of becoming” 3, Freud proposed a new view of the theory of drives.
But, having received rapid development in the 10-20s of the 20 century, the PA in our country was then destroyed. Only in the last twenty years has it come out of hiding and the slow process of recovery has begun. In the early 90s, the main works of 3 Freud were again reprinted in huge editions. Later, the domestic reader was able to get acquainted with other, more modern psychoanalytic texts. But in our country they still know little about what happened to the PA over the last century. The books that are translated and published in Russian are just fragments of a mirror reflecting the history of psychoanalytic thought. Unfortunately, so far, the works of many outstanding theorists and practitioners of psychoanalysis, such as R. Feuerbern, M. Balint, V. Bion, M. Muller, Fawkes and many others, are still awaiting publication.
The main provisions of the Modern PA are still based on the classic PA:
- human behavior, experience and cognition are largely determined by internal and irrational drives;
- these drives are predominantly unconscious;
- attempts to become aware of these drives lead to psychological resistance in the form of defense mechanisms;
- in addition to the personality structure, individual development is determined by the events of early childhood;
- conflicts between conscious perception of reality and unconscious (repressed) material can lead to mental disorders, such as neurosis, neurotic character traits, fear, depression, and so on;
- liberation from the influence of unconscious material can be achieved through its awareness
Modern psychoanalysis in a broad sense is more than 20 concepts of human mental development. Approaches to psychoanalytic therapeutic treatment differ as much as the theories themselves.
Freud's classical psychoanalysis denotes a specific type of therapy in which the "analysand" (the analytic patient) verbalizes thoughts, including free associations, fantasies and dreams, on the basis of which the analyst tries to draw conclusions about the unconscious conflicts that are the causes of the symptoms and problems of the patient's character and interprets them for the patient, to find a way to solve problems. The specificity of psychoanalytic interventions usually includes confrontation and clarification of the patient's pathological defenses and desires.
The main method of PA is the method of free associations, the main subject of study is the unconscious.
It was Z. Freud who deduced two models (topics) of the psyche, which became basic for all types of psychotherapy. The first topic is consciousness-preconscious-unconscious.
The second topic - Super I - I - It or Super Ego - Ego - Id
The first topic of Z. Freud
Historians of psychoanalysis, whether psychoanalysts or other psychologists, point out that during the long period of development of psychoanalysis, Freud applied the topographic model of personality organization. According to this model of personality psychology, three levels can be distinguished in mental life: consciousness, preconscious and unconscious. Considering them in unity, Freud, as a psychologist and psychotherapist, used this "mental map" to show the degree of awareness of such mental phenomena as thoughts, dreams, fantasies and reveal the essence of such phenomena as neurosis, depression, fear - the results of stress or developmental disabilities that require psychological help - professional advice from a psychologist and psychotherapy.
The second topic of Z. Freud
Later, Z. Freud introduced three basic structures into the anatomy of personality: It, I and the Super-I (in English translations Freud and the English-language PA use the Latin equivalents of these terms - Id, Ego and Superego). This three-part personality division is known as structural model mental life, although Freud believed that these components should be considered rather as certain processes than as special "structures" of the personality. Freud understood that the constructs he proposed were hypothetical, since the level of development of neuroanatomy at that time was not sufficient to determine their localization in the central nervous system... The sphere of It is completely unconscious, while the I and the Super-I operate on all three levels of consciousness. Consciousness encompasses all three personality structures, although its main part is formed by impulses emanating from It. Freud viewed It as a mediator between somatic and mental processes in the body. He wrote that It "is directly connected with somatic processes, arises from instinctive needs and imparts psychic expression to them, but we cannot say in what substrate this connection is realized." It acts as a reservoir for all primitive instinctual urges and draws its energy directly from bodily processes. It is subordinated the pleasure principle. Unlike It, the nature of which is expressed in the search for pleasure, the I obeys principle of reality, the purpose of which is to preserve the integrity of the organism by postponing the satisfaction of instincts until the moment when the opportunity is found to achieve discharge in a suitable way and / or appropriate conditions are found in the external environment. The principle of reality enables an individual to slow down, redirect or gradually release the gross energy of It within the framework of social restrictions and the individual's conscience. In order for a person to function effectively in society, he must have a system of values, norms and ethics that are reasonably compatible with those that are accepted in his environment. All this is acquired in the process of "socialization"; in the language of the structural model of psychoanalysis - through the formation of the Superego. Freud divided the Over I into two subsystems - the I-ideal and Conscience.
The theory of psychoanalysis is currently used in two aspects CLINICAL PSYCHOANALYSIS and APPLIED PSYCHOANALYSIS.
APPLIED PSYCHOANALYSIS
APPLIED PSYCHOANALYSIS - the use of psychoanalytic ideas and concepts in various areas of theoretical knowledge and practical action of people. It is customary to distinguish between clinical psychoanalysis, which deals with mental illness and involves appropriate work with patients, and applied psychoanalysis. The latter is usually associated with the use of psychoanalytic ideas and concepts in the fields of philosophy, sociology, economics, politics, pedagogy, religion, art, including the study of various manifestations of the individual and collective unconscious, biographies of scientists, politicians, writers, artists.
The origin of applied psychoanalysis is based on the research activity of Z. Freud. Already at the initial stages of the formation and development of psychoanalysis as such, the ideas put forward by him about the unconscious human activity were reflected not only in clinical practice, but also in the interpretation of works of art. For example, letters to the Berlin physician W. Fliss, written by Z. Freud in the 90s of the nineteenth century, contain reflections related to the original interpretation of such world masterpieces as Oedipus the King by Sophocles and Hamlet by Shakespeare, which received its further development in his first fundamental psychoanalytic work "The Interpretation of Dreams" (1900) and in his subsequent works. Subsequently, he paid considerable attention to the psychoanalytic understanding of wit, primitive religion, art, culture in general, to which a number of works were devoted, marking the beginning of the development of what is now commonly called applied psychoanalysis. These include such works as "Wit and its relation to the unconscious" (1905), "The artist and fantasy" (1905), "Delirium and dreams in" Gradiva "by I. Jensen" (1907), "Memoirs of Leonardo da Vinci about early childhood "(1910)," Totem and Taboo "(1913)," The Future of an Illusion "(1927)," Dostoevsky and Parricide "(1928)," Dissatisfaction with Culture "(1930)," The Man Moses and the Monotheistic Religion " (1938) and others. As Z. Freud emphasized, the purpose of this kind of research is to clarify from the standpoint of psychoanalysis "the connection between external events and a person's reactions to them through the activity of drives."
Many followers of Z. Freud began to use psychoanalytic ideas and concepts in biographical (pathographic) research, in understanding the history of the formation and development of culture, political and social structure, which contributed to the formation of applied psychoanalysis as a specific activity that goes beyond the framework of clinical analysis and medicine. Thus, the division into clinical and applied psychoanalysis has been established in modern psychoanalytic literature.
However, it should be borne in mind that S. Freud himself considered such a division of psychoanalysis into clinical and applied is not correct. In his work "The Problem of Amateur Analysis" (1926), he drew attention to the fact that "in reality, the border passes between scientific psychoanalysis and its application (in the medical and non-medical fields)." In this sense, clinical psychoanalysis is also applied, based on the use of psychoanalytic ideas and concepts in the process of therapeutic activity.
CLINICAL PSYCHOANALYSIS (PA)
Clinical PA refers to a psychodynamic approach to therapy and was originally used in practice to treat hysteria. PA has changed significantly since the time of Freud, so in what follows we will call it MODERN PSYCHOANALYSIS or just PA.
According to Z. Freud, “any treatment based on the understanding and application of the concepts of transference and resistance can be called psychoanalytic”. The modern definition of psychoanalysis is similar. Psychoanalytic therapy is a therapy that recognizes the existence of unconscious mental processes, that studies the motives of human behavior and development, that uses the concepts of resistance and transference. The setting of the therapy itself has also changed. In Freud's time, PA was held 5-6 times a week. Now it is customary to call PA therapy with such a frequency of meetings, if the setting is one or two meetings per week, then this type of mental assistance is called psychoanalytically directed therapy or psychoanalytically oriented therapy, which, however, does not implore its therapeutic effect.
Key concepts of clinical psychoanalysis (for example, therapeutic relationship, transference, countertransference, resistance, insight, defense mechanisms) and game rules (such as inviting the patient to freely associate and narrating dream material, focusing on the here and now interaction, offering the analyst to the client - lie on the couch, all of this has been used by modern psychoanalysis since the time of Freud.
INDICATIONS FOR PSYCHOANALYTIC THERAPY.
Various forms of hysteria; - anxiety neuroses; - phobias; - neurotic depression; - psychosomatic disorders; - dysthymia; - obsessive-compulsive disorders; - conversion disorders; - affective disorders; - personality disorders from mild to moderate severity; - autonomous functional disorders with an established mental etiology; - mental disorders caused by emotional deficiency in early childhood; - mental disorders resulting from extreme situations.
TO WHOM PSYCHOANALYSIS IS CONTRAINDICATED.
Psychoanalysis cannot help a person who does not want to change.
"Everyone offends me!"
Even when we are really surrounded bad people and they cause us suffering, often we unconsciously contribute to staying in this situation, or even provoking it. When a person is sure that the causes of all his troubles lie in someone else, it is very difficult to help him. After all, if nothing depends on you, then you cannot change anything either.
The mechanism of changes in the process of psychoanalytic therapy is as follows: a person begins to become more aware of his feelings and see how they affect his behavior, decisions made, how they determine his life strategies. Then he can change his behavior in certain situations or attitude towards certain people or things. To benefit from psychoanalysis or psychoanalytic therapy, it is not enough to want others to change. Only you can change.
"You need to be treated!"
Also, you cannot force someone to undergo psychoanalysis. The great therapeutic potential of this method lies in the collaboration between analyst and client based on trust and respect. But it’s impossible to trust, respect, and cooperate in a relationship that you’ve been forced into.
If you think that one of your loved ones needs the help of a psychoanalyst, you can offer him a specialist, show him the possibilities, and support his decision. But don't force. A person who is forced to go to a psychoanalyst will resist cooperation, and will sooner be convinced that they will not be helped here than will benefit.
In psychoanalysis, it is impossible to get everything at once.
Changes: Fast! Effectively! For life! Choose any TWO options
If your main priority is very rapid change, and its depth and stability are secondary to you, then psychoanalysis is probably not the most effective method for achieving your goals.
Some psychoanalysts can offer you focal short-term therapy that can solve specific problems. This makes sense when the problems are not very serious and exist in one specific area. If there are a number of problems affecting different areas of life, or if one of your goals is to get to know yourself better, then more long-term work is effective.
Psychoanalysis is a deep psychological method, i.e. deals with the unconscious layers of the human psyche. Its advantage lies in the ability to change a person's life at a very deep level, helping him to realize what is hidden not only from prying eyes, but even from himself.
Psychoanalytic therapy is like diving into the depths of the ocean. This process should not be infinitely long, but it should have such a pace that the body adapts to what is happening and is not injured. In psychoanalysis, the pace of progress also largely depends on the capabilities and needs of the client's psyche.
Along with the desire to get rid of suffering and achieve positive change, resistance to change is inherent in the psyche of any person. Overcoming this resistance non-traumatically takes time.
Psychoanalysis is difficult for people unable to talk about their feelings.
"When you do not know the words, you have nothing to know people with." (Confucius).
Psychoanalysis is a conversational method of psychotherapy, i.e. therapy takes place in conversation. For a small child, learning to understand speech and speak is an opportunity to move to a qualitatively new level of understanding oneself, relations with people around and the world. For an adult, talking about your feelings and finding names for your states is an opportunity for much greater expression and understanding of yourself.
Therefore, in psychoanalysis, it is important that the client talks about what comes into his head. The famous French psychoanalyst J. Lacan said that the unconscious is structured like a language. Thus, conversation opens the way in psychoanalysis to understanding the unconscious.
If a conversation is impossible for some reason, or a person experiences strong negative feelings when it is necessary to talk about himself, it makes sense to turn to other methods of psychotherapy (for example, art therapy, dance therapy, psychodrama, etc.)
Sometimes you don't need psychoanalysis
Exists life situations in which a person really needs help, but this is not psychoanalysis. What are these situations?
- Mental and physical trauma that has just occurred, as well as situations of acute grief.
Here, most of all, psychological support is needed from loved ones. If this is not enough, you can connect a specialist who will provide crisis assistance. Sometimes it also makes sense not to give up on short-term pharmacological care, which can alleviate the excessive burden on the psyche.
- Drug or heavy alcohol addiction
In these cases, the person certainly has psychological problems and needs help. But in these conditions, tangible chemical dependence also plays a significant role. This must be understood and adequate measures must be taken to combat it. Narcologists specialize in this.
Most effective method programs based on the principles of Alcoholics Anonymous (12 steps) are recognized to cope with these addictions.
- serious mental illness (psychosis, schizophrenia)
Modern pharmacology provides people with severe mental illness the opportunity to be in remission. It is very important that a person with a psychiatric diagnosis is in constant contact with an experienced psychiatrist who can choose an adequate pharmacological therapy.
Psychological help in this case is also very important, but only such help is not enough.
A good psychoanalyst is interested in ensuring that the client who turns to him receives the most effective assistance... The specialist will select the approach that is most suitable for you or recommend the appropriate specialist.
If you have hesitations and doubts about psychoanalysis, you can seek the advice of a psychoanalyst who can help you make a decision "for" or "against".
For several decades, the development of psychoanalysis was accompanied by the popularization of psychoanalytic ideas and their integration into all kinds of areas of knowledge, such as science, religion, philosophy. After the release of this concept on the international arena, it became so widely used and widespread in the psychological, fiction and medical literature of the 20th century that it became vague and incomprehensible.
The first to introduce this concept was Sigmund Freud. In 1896, he published an article in French about the etiology of neuroses. At that time, this concept was interpreted as a kind of therapeutic technique. Then it received the name of a science that investigated the unconscious mental activity of a person. And over time, it turned into a concept that could be applied in all spheres of life, not only of a person, but also of world culture.
Uncertainty in the designation of the concept of psychoanalysis is mainly caused by not fully thought out interpretation on the part of many scientists, doctors and researchers of theories, concepts, and also ideas, once described by Freud. However, the ambiguity of this concept is explained not only by these factors. In Freud's own writings, several definitions of psychoanalysis can be seen. They are not only related to each other, but also in a certain context interchange, contradict each other, which is a difficult factor in understanding the definition of psychoanalysis.
The traditional definition of psychoanalysis is as follows - a set of psychological methods, ideas and theories aimed at explaining unconscious connections using the associative process.
This concept became widespread in Europe (early 20th century) and the United States (mid-20th century), as well as in some countries of Latin America (second half of the 20th century).
Popular definitions of psychoanalysis
As mentioned earlier, there are quite a few interpretations of psychoanalysis. If we take a certain interpretation as the initial one, then the soil for a detailed study and understanding of the concept disappears. Therefore, we will try to give its characteristics described by Freud in his works. So, the following definitions are inherent in psychoanalysis:
One of the subsystems of psychology as a science that investigated the unconscious;
one of the main means of scientific research;
a way of researching and describing the processes of psychology;
a kind of tool, for example, how to calculate small values;
concept by which I AM can master IT(consciousness - unconscious);
one of the means of research in various spheres of spiritual life;
kind of self-knowledge of oneself as a person;
research on therapies;
a method for ridding yourself of mental suffering;
a medical method with which it is possible to treat some forms of neuroses.
As you can see, psychoanalysis can be considered both a science and an art. Moreover, it occupies a place between philosophy and medicine.
However, can psychoanalysis be considered a science that would be able to study and explain the unconscious drives and desires of a person? Is it the art of interpreting dreams, literary texts and cultural phenomena? Or is it still a common method of treatment that is widely used in psychotherapy?
The answers to these questions directly depend on the point of view from which Freud's psychoanalytic teachings about culture and man are viewed. Thus, the question of the scientific status of this concept remains unanswered, despite the numerous efforts of experienced scientists and researchers to confirm or refute all kinds of psychoanalytic theories, methods and concepts. Some researchers (who are supporters of classical psychoanalysis) believe that psychoanalysis can be counted among the same studied science as, for example, chemistry or physics. Others say that psychoanalysis in no way can meet the requirements of science (K. Popper) and is an ordinary myth (L. Wittgenstein) or an intellectual delusion of a person endowed with fantasy and imagination, such as Freud. Some philosophers, for example, J. Habermas and P. Ricoeur believe that psychoanalysis is a hermeneutics.
The most complete definition of the concepts of psychoanalysis can also be found in the encyclopedic article "Psychoanalysis and Theory" of libido, which was written by Freud. There he highlighted the following interpretations:
A way of researching and defining mental processes that are inaccessible to conscious understanding;
one of the methods of therapy for neuroses;
several emerging and constantly evolving psychological constructs that, over time, can recreate a new scientific discipline.
Background, goals and ideas of psychoanalysis
The main prerequisite for psychoanalysis is considered to be the division of the psyche into two categories: the unconscious and the conscious. Any more or less educated psychoanalyst does not consider consciousness to be the main link of the psyche and proceeds from the fact that unconscious desires and aspirations are a predetermining factor in a person's thinking and actions.
Speaking about the causes of most mental and emotional disorders, it should be noted that many of them are rooted in childhood experiences that destructively affect the child's psyche, unconscious sexual desires and desires, and, as a result of aggressive behavior, colliding with cultural and moral norms existing in society. ... Because of this, a psychic conflict is born, which can be resolved by getting rid of "bad" inclinations and desires rooted in consciousness. But they cannot just disappear without a trace, they only pass into the depths of the psyche of the individual and sooner or later they will make themselves felt. Thanks to sublimation mechanisms (switching aggressive and sexual energy to good intentions and acceptable goals), they can move into creativity, scientific activities, but they can also push a person towards illness, i.e. a neurotic way of resolving life contradictions and problems facing a person.
In theory, the main goal of psychoanalysis is to identify the meaning and significance of the unconscious in the life of an individual, to reveal and understand the mechanisms of functioning that are responsible for the human psyche. The main psychoanalytic ideas include the following:
There are no coincidences and coincidences in the psyche;
the events of the first years can affect (both positively and negatively) the subsequent development of the child;
the Oedipus complex (the child's unconscious instincts, which are accompanied by the expression of loving and aggressive emotions towards parents) is not only the main cause of neuroses, but also the main source of morality, society, religion and culture;
The structure of the mental apparatus has three areas - the unconscious IT(drives and instincts that originate in the somatic structure and appear in forms that are not subject to consciousness), the conscious I (having the function of self-preservation and control over actions and requirements IT, as well as always striving for satisfaction at any cost) and hypermoral SUPER-I, which is the authority of parents, social requirements and conscience.
Human's two fundamental drives are the drive for life. (Eros) and to death (Thanatos), which includes a destructive instinct.
In clinical practice, psychoanalysis is used to eliminate neurotic symptoms by bringing the patient to awareness of his unconscious desires, actions and drives in order to understand them and subsequently not to use these intrapsychic conflicts. Using numerous analogies, Freud compared therapeutics to the work of a chemist and archaeologist, and to the influence of a teacher and the intervention of a physician.
Lecture by A.V. Rossokhina Riddles of modern psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis is one of the directions in psychology, founded by the Austrian psychiatrist and psychologist Z. Freud at the end of the XIX - first third of the XX century.
This psychological trend is based on the concept of the unconscious by Z. Freud. The impetus for a deep study of the unconscious was for Freud the presence at a hypnosis session, when a patient in a hypnotic state was prompted to get up after awakening and take an umbrella standing in the corner and belonging to one of those present. Before awakening, she was instructed to forget that this suggestion had been carried out. After awakening, the patient got up, went over and took the umbrella, and then opened it. When asked why she did this, she replied that she wanted to check if the umbrella was working properly or not. When it was noticed that the umbrella was not hers, she was extremely embarrassed.
This experiment attracted the attention of Freud, who became interested in a number of phenomena. First, the unawareness of the reasons for the actions performed. Secondly, the absolute effectiveness of these reasons: a person completes the task, despite the fact that he himself does not know why he is doing it. Third, the desire to find an explanation for your action. Fourthly, the possibility, sometimes through prolonged questioning, to bring a person to the memory of the true reason for his action. Thanks to this incident and relying on a number of other facts, Freud created his theory of the unconscious.
According to Freud's theory, there are three spheres or areas in the human psyche: consciousness, preconsciousness and the unconscious. He attributed to the category of consciousness everything that is realized and controlled by a person. Freud attributed hidden, or latent, knowledge to the area of preconsciousness. This is the knowledge that a person has, but which is currently absent in consciousness. They are triggered when an appropriate stimulus occurs.
The area of the unconscious, according to Freud, has completely different properties. The first property is that the content of this area is not recognized, but has an extremely significant impact on our behavior. The area of the unconscious is effective. The second property lies in the fact that information in the unconscious area with difficulty passes into consciousness. This is explained by the work of two mechanisms: displacement and resistance.
In his theory, Freud identified three main forms of manifestation of the unconscious: dreams, erroneous actions, neurotic symptoms. To study the manifestations of the unconscious within the framework of the theory of psychoanalysis, methods of their study were developed - the method of free associations and the method of analyzing dreams. The method of free association involves the interpretation by the psychoanalyst of the words continuously produced by the patient. The psychoanalyst must find a pattern in the words produced by the patient and make an appropriate conclusion about the causes of the condition that arose in the person who asked for help. As one of the variants of this method in psychoanalysis, an associative experiment is used, when the patient is offered to quickly and without hesitation call the words in response to the word uttered by the psychoanalyst. As a rule, after several dozen trials, words related to his hidden feelings begin to appear in the subject's answers.
The analysis of dreams is carried out in a similar way. The need to analyze dreams, according to Freud, is due to the fact that during sleep the level of control of consciousness decreases and dreams appear in front of a person, caused by a partial breakthrough into the sphere of consciousness of his drives, which are blocked by consciousness in a state of wakefulness.
Freud paid particular attention to neurotic symptoms. According to his views, neurotic symptoms are traces of repressed traumatic circumstances that form a highly charged focus in the unconscious sphere and from there produce destructive work to destabilize a person's mental state. In order to get rid of neurotic symptoms, Freud considered it necessary to open this focus, that is, to make the patient realize the reasons for his condition, and then the neurosis will be cured.
Freud believed that the basis for the emergence of neurotic symptoms was the most important biological need of all living organisms - the need for procreation, which manifests itself in humans in the form of sexual desire. Suppressed sexual desire is the cause of neurotic disorders. However, such disorders can be caused by other reasons that are not related to a person's sexuality. These are various unpleasant experiences that accompany everyday life. As a result of displacement into the sphere of the unconscious, they also form strong energy foci, which are manifested in the so-called erroneous actions. To erroneous actions Freud attributed the forgetting of certain facts, intentions, names, as well as misspellings, reservations, etc. These phenomena were explained to him as a consequence of difficult or unpleasant experiences associated with a particular object, word, name, etc. In turn , slips of the tongue or random slip of the tongue, Freud explained by the fact that they contain the true intentions of a person, carefully hidden from others.
The formation of Z. Freud's views went through two main stages. At the first stage, a dynamic model of the psyche was developed, including the idea of its three spheres: consciousness, preconsciousness and unconsciousness. At the second stage (starting from the 1920s) psychoanalysis turns into a doctrine of personality, in which three structures are distinguished: It (Id), I (Ego) and Super-I (Super-Ego). The structure of It contains innate unconscious instincts (the instinct for life and death), as well as repressed drives and desires. The structure of the I is formed under the influence outside world and is under the bilateral influence of the Id and the Super-I. The structure of the Super-I contains a system of ideals, norms and prohibitions, is formed in individual experience through identification with the Super-I of parents and close adults. The struggle between the structures of the Superego and It gives rise to the unconscious defense mechanisms of the personality, as well as the sublimation of unconscious drives.
However, very few followers of Z. Freud agreed with him that sexual impulses determine the entire life of a person. This direction was further developed in the works of A. Adler, C. Jung, E. Erickson, K. Horney, A. Assogioli, E. Fromm, and others.
So, A. Adler creates his own version of psychoanalysis - individual psychology, in which the central place is given to the problems of target determination of human behavior, the meaning of life, the conditions for the emergence of an inferiority complex in the individual and the means of compensation (overcompensation) of genuine and imaginary shortcomings.
E. Erickson, using a large empirical material, proved the socio-cultural conditionality of the human psyche, as opposed to classical psychoanalysis, where a person and society were opposed. The most important in the concept of E. Erickson is the concept of "psychosocial identity": a stable image of the I and the corresponding ways of personality behavior, which are developed throughout life and are a condition of mental health. But with significant social upheavals (war, disasters, violence, unemployment, etc.), psychosocial identity can be lost. The main role in the formation of this personal education is played by the I (Ego), which is guided by the values and ideals of society, which become in the process of educating the individual with the values and ideals of herself.
K. Jung, one of the students of Z. Freud, created his own version of psychoanalysis - analytical psychology. Based on the analysis of dreams, delirium, schizophrenic disorders, as well as on the study of mythology, the works of Eastern, ancient and medieval philosophers, K. Jung comes to the conclusion about the existence and manifestation of the collective unconscious in human psychology. According to K. Jung, the contents of the collective unconscious are not acquired in the individual life experience of the subject - they already exist at birth in the form of archetypes, which are inherited from ancestors.
And according to K. Horney, neuroses develop due to contradictions in human relations, which actualize a person's feeling of "fundamental anxiety." Relations with parents in childhood play a particularly important role in neurotic development of the personality.
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