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Presents modern information about the structure and functions of all systems of the human body. The presented material is the fundamental basis for the subsequent study of clinical disciplines. Particular attention in the textbook is paid to the most important for the professional activity of nursing staff on the morphology of organs and organ systems, contains the necessary reference material. The textbook can be used in the study of the general professional discipline OP.O3 "Human Anatomy and Physiology" in accordance with the FSES SPO for all specialties of the enlarged group 060000 "Health". For students of institutions of secondary medical professional education.
History of anatomy.
The history of anatomy is rooted in ancient times. The people of primitive society already had some idea of \u200b\u200bthe purpose of parts of the human body and its structure. Apparently, the origin of human cognitive activity is associated with the dismemberment of killed animals and a comparison of the information obtained about the shape and structure of organs in animals and a wounded person. This is confirmed by the found cave and rock paintings in Spain and China (1400-2600 BC). Against the background of the outlines of the depicted animals, the location and shape of some internal organs (heart, respiratory organs, stomach, kidneys, etc.) are correctly shown.
In the 4th - 2nd millennium BC. the center of science and culture is being formed in Ancient Egypt, Ancient Babylon and Ancient Palestine. At this time, a peculiar caste of doctors emerged - priests, who began to widely use water, oils, herbal infusions, etc. for the treatment of diseases. The word “doctor” literally means “knowledgeable of water” or “knowledge of oils”. Medicine involved studying the basics of the structure of the human body. In ancient Egypt, the embalming of corpses became widespread: small incisions were made in the body, internal organs and the brain were removed, the body of the deceased was impregnated with saline solutions and resinous compounds.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 3
Chapter 1. A Brief Historical Sketch 5
1.1. Anatomy history 5
1.2. History of Physiology 12
Chapter 2. Object and research methods 16
2.1. Object and methods of anatomical research 16
2.2. Planes, axes and basic landmarks in anatomy 17
2.3. Object and research methods in physiology 19
Chapter 3. The human body as a whole. Fundamentals of Cytology and Histology 21
3.1. Structural and functional organization of the human body 21
3.2. Cell 21
3.3. Fabrics 25
3.4. Organs 36
3.5. Organ systems 36
3.6. The human body as a whole 37
Chapter 4. Skeletal system 40
4.1. General 40
4.2. Torso skeleton 48
4.3. Head skeleton 54
4.4. Upper limb skeleton 79
4.5. Lower limb skeleton 85
Chapter 5. Bone Joints 94
5.1. General arthrosindesmology 94
5.2. Joints of the trunk bones 100
5.3. Skull joints 105
5.4. Connections of the bones of the upper limb 107
5.5. Lower limb joints 113
Chapter 6. The muscular system 122
6.1. General myology 122
6.2. Muscles, fascia and topography of the back 131
6.3. Muscles, fascia and topography of the chest 135
6.4. Muscles, fascia and topography of the abdomen 139
6.5. Aperture 144
6.6. Muscles, fascia and topography of the neck 145
6.7. Muscles, fascia and topography of the head 152
6.8. Muscles of the upper limb 156
6.9. Muscles, fascia and topography of the lower limb 166
Chapter 7. Anatomy and physiology of the digestive system 180
7.1. Basic concepts 180
7.2. General plan of the structure of the digestive system 182
7.3. Oral cavity 185
7.4. Throat 194
7.5. Esophagus 196
7.6. Stomach 199
7.7. Small intestine 204
7.8. Liver 207
7.9. Pancreas 211
7.10. Colon 213
7.11. Morphofunctional features of the peritoneum 216
7.12. Physiological aspects of hunger and thirst. Appetite 220
7.13. The role of the microflora of the digestive tract. Dysbacteriosis 221
Chapter 8. Anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system 225
8.1. General Provisions 225
8.2. Upper respiratory tract 226
8.3. Lower respiratory tract 229
8.4. Lungs 234
8.5. Mediastinum 240
8.6. Respiratory physiology 241
Chapter 9. Anatomy and physiology of the excretory system 249
9.1. Basic concepts 249
9.2. Kidneys 252
9.3. Urine formation 256
9.4. Urinary tract 260
9.5. Excretory functions of other organs 264
Chapter 10. Metabolism and Energy 267
10.1. Basic concepts 267
10.2. Metabolism 268
10.3. Vitamins 274
10.4. Decay and oxidation of organic matter in cells 277
10.5. Energy exchange 280
10.6. Regulation of metabolism 283
Chapter 11. Anatomy of the reproductive system. Reproductive function and human development 285
11.1. Male reproductive system 285
11.2. Female reproductive system 292
11.3. Crotch 301
11.4. Human development 303
Chapter 12. Cardiovascular system 311
12.1. General Provisions 311
12.2. Heart 313
12.3. Arterial system 323
12.4. Venous system 334
12.5. Hemomicrocirculatory bed 341
12.6. Vessels of a small circle of blood circulation 342
12.7. The movement of blood through the vessels 342
12.8. Bleeding 344
12.9. Features of blood circulation in the fetus 345
12.10. Lymphatic system 347
Chapter 13. Internal environments of the body. Blood 353
13.1. Basic concepts 353
13.2. Functions and composition of blood 354
13.3. Blood types 362
13.4. Blood transfusion. Donation 364
13.5. Immunity 365
Chapter 14. Central nervous system 371
14.1. General questions of anatomy nervous system 371
14.2. Spinal cord 379
14.3. Brain 384
14.4. Means of the brain and spinal cord 398
14.5. Pathways of the central nervous system 399
Chapter 15. Functional Anatomy of the Peripheral Nervous System 406
15.1. Peripheral Nervous System Concepts 406
15.2. Cranial nerves 409
15.3. Spinal nerves 415
15.4. Autonomic nervous system 423
Chapter 16. Higher nervous activity 431
16.1. Fundamentals 431
16.2. The concept of the first and second signaling systems 435
16.3. Electroencephalography 436
16.4. Types of higher nervous activity 437
16.5. Spheres of higher nervous activity 439
16.6. Dream 443
16.7. Occupational Physiology 445
Chapter 17. Senses. Analyzers 448
17.1. General concepts 448
17.2. Organ of vision 449
17.3. Organ of hearing and balance 456
17.4. Organ of smell 461
17.5. The organ of taste 462
17.6. Somatosensory organs. Leather 463
Chapter 18. Endocrine system 467
18.1. The concept of the endocrine system. General characteristics of hormones 467
18.2. Thyroid 469
18.3. Parathyroid glands 470
18.4. Thymus 470
18.5. Pancreas 471
18.6. Adrenal glands 472
18.7. Sex glands 473
18.8. Epiphysis 474
18.9. Hypothalamus and pituitary gland 474
Applications 478
References 492.
Name: Osteology. 5th edition.
The year of publishing: 2010
The size: 31.85 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
The anatomy textbook "Osteology" presented to your attention, where the issues of osteology - the initial section of human anatomy, studying the structure of the human bone skeleton - are highlighted rather succinctly, at the same time, briefly and easily. The book contains the structure of the bones of the trunk, upper and lower extremities, all data are accompanied by graphic materials, Latin terminology is presented without characteristic abbreviations for better assimilation when studying the topic. Study guide I.V. Gayvoronsky "Osteology" in its 5th edition is revised and is perfect for studying the structure of the bone skeleton by students of medical universities.
Name: Human anatomy. Atlas for Pediatricians.
Nikityuk D.B., Klochkova S.V.
The year of publishing: 2019
The size: 43.3 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Human Anatomy. Atlas for Pediatricians" is an unparalleled publication aimed specifically at pediatric students. The atlas examines in detail human ontogenesis, in the book ... Download the book for free
Name: Musculoskeletal system anatomy
Pivchenko P.G., Trushel N.A.
The year of publishing: 2014
The size: 55.34 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Anatomy of the musculoskeletal system" under the editorship of P.G. Pivchenko, et al., Considers general osteology: the function and structure of bones, their development, classification, as well as age characteristics ... Download the book for free
Name: Large Atlas of Human Anatomy
Vincent Perez
The year of publishing: 2015
The size: 25.64 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: Vicente Pereza's Large Atlas of Human Anatomy provides compact illustrations of all sections of normal human anatomy. The atlas contains drawings, diagrams, photograms illuminating the bone-we ... Download the book for free
Name: Anatomy of the muscular system. Muscles, fascia and topography.
Gayvoronsky I.V., Nichiporuk G.I.
The year of publishing: 2005
The size: 9.95 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The textbook "Anatomy of the muscular system. Muscles, fascia and topography", as always at a high level, considers with the inherent accessibility of the description of the material the main questions of myology, where ... Download the book for free
Name: Anatomy of a human.
Kravchuk S.Yu.
The year of publishing: 2007
The size: 143.36 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Ukrainian
Description: The presented book "Anatomy of a People" by S.Yu. Kravchuk kindly provided to us directly by its author to popularize and facilitate the study of the basic for all medical science and one of the most ... Download the book for free
Name: Functional anatomy of the senses
The year of publishing: 2011
The size: 87.69 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The presented book "Functional Anatomy of the Sensory Organs", ed., Gayvoronsky IV, et al., Examines the anatomy of the organ of vision, balance and hearing. The features of their innervation and ... Download the book for free
Name: Functional anatomy of the endocrine system
Gaivoronsky I.V., Nechiporuk G.I.
The year of publishing: 2010
The size: 70.88 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The textbook "Functional anatomy of the endocrine system" under the editorship of Gayvoronsky IV, et al., Examines the normal anatomy of the endocrine glands, their innervation and blood supply. Description ... Download the book for free
Name: Illustrated Atlas of Human Anatomy
McMillan B.
The year of publishing: 2010
The size: 148.57 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The Practical Guide Illustrated Atlas of Human Anatomy, ed. By B. McMillan, is a beautifully illustrated atlas of normal human anatomy. Atlas examines the structure ...
Saint Petersburg: Elby, 2006. - 64 p.
ISBN: 5-93979-098-4
The study guide meets the basic requirements of the human anatomy curriculum. It summarizes the basics of the structure of the organs of the digestive system, the features of their blood supply, innervation and outflow of lymph. When describing the structure of organs, along with Russian names, the corresponding Latin and Greek terms are given. In connection with the introduction of the new International Anatomical Nomenclature (2003), the necessary changes and additions were made to the manual. This manual will be useful not only for preparing for the final lesson on the anatomy of the digestive system, but also for repeating the material covered for the exam. The manual is designed for cadets and students of medical training faculties, students of advanced training faculties, it can also be used by clinicians of various specialties.
The ability to download this file is blocked at the request of the copyright holder.
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Gayvoronsky I.V., Nichiporuk G.I. Respiratory system and heart anatomy
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- size 5.86 MB
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Publisher: ELBI-SPb Year: 2010 Pages: 48 The manual has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum on human anatomy for higher educational institutions. The publication contains basic information on the anatomy of the respiratory system and heart, briefly outlines the basics of the structure of these organs, especially their blood supply, innervation and outflow of lymph. Along with the Russian names, the corresponding Latin and Greek ter ...
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ELBI-SPb (2005) 84 pp. The manual has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the curriculum on human anatomy for higher medical institutions. It contains information on general and particular myology. The material is presented briefly, concisely, according to the response scheme adopted at the Department of Normal Anatomy of the Military Medical Academy. The publication contains the original classification of muscles, which provides for principles important for clinical anatomy - top ...
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Saint Petersburg: Elby, 2006. - 64 p. ISBN: 5-93979-098-4 Due to the fact that the material on the anatomy of the digestive system is studied in the sections "Splanchnology" and "Angioneurology", integration and systematization of the knowledge gained is required. For this purpose, this tutorial has been prepared. It meets the basic requirements of the human anatomy curriculum. It summarizes the basics of the structure of the organs of the digestive system, the features of their blood ...
Coursework - Anatomical characteristics of the digestive system
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The manual describes in detail and in accessible language the entire human antatomy. GNI. The importance of the nervous system. General plan of its structure. ... Methods for studying the nervous system and vnd. Anatomy and physiology of the cardiovascular system, respiratory system. Anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system. Methods for studying the cardiorespiratory system.
Transcript
1 IV Gaivoronskiy, GI Nichiporuk OSTEOLOGY study guide Recommended by the Interuniversity Editorial and Publishing Council for Medical Literature of St. Petersburg as a textbook for the faculties of training doctors c. "I St. Petersburg" ELBI-SPb "2005
2 I.V. Gaivoroisky, G.I. nichiporuk. OSTEOLOGY. Tutorial. SPb .: ELBI-SP S. ISBN Osteology is the first section from which the study of human anatomy begins. It is the most difficult because it includes a huge number of specific anatomical structures. The latter must be correctly named in Russian and Latin, shown on an anatomical specimen. This manual provides for the systematization of knowledge gained in lectures and practical exercises. For brevity, the main parts of the bones are given under a certain number, and the formations on them are separated by a hyphen and written in the nominative case. Latin terms are given without abbreviations, since in the first semester, mastering anatomical terminology is a very important aspect of training. The text is accompanied by informative illustrations showing all the necessary anatomical structures. In presenting particular questions, special attention is paid to the correct orientation of the bones in relation to the anatomical stance (vertical position of the body, hands are turned with palms forward). The manual has been prepared in accordance with the requirements of the educational program on human anatomy for higher educational medical institutions. It contains basic information on the anatomy of the skeletal system. I am confident that the information presented in this manual will contribute to the successful study of the material from the textbook, will allow you to prepare qualitatively for the test and the exam, and represent a good basis for self-control and computer testing. ISBN I.V. Gaivoronsky, 2005 G.I. Nichiporuk, 2005 ELBI-SPb, 2005 Signed for printing. Format 60x88 1/16. Offset paper. Times headset. Volume 4 p. L. Circulation 1000 copies. Order 3373 Publishing house LLC "ELBI-SPB" ID from St. Petersburg., Laboratorny pr., 23,
3 GENERAL OSTEOLOGY Osteology is the doctrine of the mouth. In the body of an adolescent person, there are 206 bones, which together with their joints make up the skeleton. Skeleton functions 1. Supporting - the presence of attachment points for soft tissues (muscles, ligaments, fascia, internal organs). 2. Locomotor - is the body and its parts in space (bones are levers) 3.A nt 1 1 gravitats 1 yuya - counteraction to the force of gravity 4. Protective - prevention of damage to the vital organs, large vessels and nerves (skull, chest, pelvis) 5. Hematopoietic and immune - the formation of corpuscular elements of the blood, and the formation of blood cells, and the formation of blood corpuscles. in and n and t e l (provided by red bone marrow). 6. Exchanging - participation in min eral exchanges (they are , mainly, salts of calcium, phosphorus and other microelements). The structure of the bones Kos "1 b, av, is an organ that is the first component of the system of support and movement, and it is and y type p and h n y y formulation, characteristic architectonics of vessels and nerves, built first, mainly from bone tissue, covered !! outside the periosteum "1 and containing the bone marrow inside. O steon (Haversian system) is a structural and functional unit of the bone (Fig. 1). It is represented by concentrically located bone plates (Haversian), which are in the form of cylinders of different diameters, nested into each other , surround the Haversian canal. Between the ostons there are insertion plates (there are only 1 hour of old octc4 hob) going in all directions. Outside the bones are the general plates. That is, the substantia compacla is a dense plate covering the outside of the bone, consisting of osteons and bone plates. It consists of the diaphysis of the tubular bones (Fig. 2) , and in the form of a thin plate, it covers the epiphyses of tubular bones, flat, volumetric and mixed bones. 1 2 Fig. 1. Strosins bones. I - bone mass; 2 - osteon (reconstruction).
4 Spongy fossil, subxtontia sponglosa, with sparsely located bone plates. It is found in the epiphyses of tubular bones, it is the main miss of flat and volumetric KOCTcii. The periosteum, periosleum, covers the outside of the bone, except for the places where the articular cartilage is located and the tendons of muscles or ligaments are attached. It plays an important role in the development (growth in thickness) and bone nutrition. The red Kocriibiit brain, medulla ossetiin nihrci, is located in the cells of the spongy substance; it performs a hematopoietic function, 1 Yellow bone marrow, medulla osseum Jhiva, is present only in an adult; it is located within the bone marrow cavity, which is lined from the inside with an endostome. The untreated bone of an adult contains about 50% water; 16% fat; 12% organic and 22% inorganic substances; inorganic substance is represented mainly by calcium salts in the form of crystals pshchrokh "naiiig gn, prndayuii" x kosh strength 1 is. 2. Rispnl npokchmujn\u003e another einf and behind the femur. 1 - epiphysis proximuiis; 2 m eliiphysis; 3 - substantia spongiosa; 4 - substantia compacta; 5 - cavitus medulluris; 6 - diaphysis. and fragility; the organic matter of the bone is represented mainly by the protein osssium, which gives the bone flexibility. Classification of bones 1, Pi located in blue: - skull bones; - bones 7loves; - bones of the extremities, 2, Three types of bones of the skull are distinguished according to the stump of the trepium; - diploic (parietal, occipital, lobial bone, lower jaw); - pievmatizing (temporal, claw-shaped, ethmoid, frontal bones and upper jaw); - compa1sgnis (lacrimal, zygomatic, palatine, nasal bones, lower 1US0 concha, vomer, hyoid bone), 3. Four types of braids are distinguished by shape and structure: - tubular bones: a) long (humerus, forearm bones , thigh bone, bones of golsnn, collarbone); b) short (metacarpal bones, metatarsus bones, finger bones); 4
5 - flat (bone, sternum, scapula, rib); volumetric (bones of the zip, bones of the tarsus); - mixed bones (vertebrae), 4. Pirispia: primary; develop on the basis of connective tissue (bones of the skull roof; zygomatic, palatine, nasal bones; w, lacrimal bones; upper jaw and couhiiik); - secondary; develop on the basis of cartilage (trunk bones and conchstep; ethmoid and hyoid bones, lower 1st shell); - mixed (occipital, sphenoid and temporal bones; and the jaw). Development of bones 1. Primary bones are formed on the basis of connective tissue (stage of bone and bone); they ossify in an endesmal type: by oppositional growth from ossification points from the center to the periphery (bones of the facial skull, bones of the skull roof). 2. Secondary bones develop at the base of cartilage (connective tissue, cartilaginous and bone stages); - enchondral type of ossification; from the center of the bone to psri (1) sria (bones of the skull base, epiphyses of tubular bones, bones of the trunk); psrichoidral type of ossification; the formation of a bone cuff around the cartilaginous anlage (diaphysis of 1 tubular bones), Mstaepiphyseal cartilage is a layer of cartilage between the JPiphysis and the diaphysis, which is a zone of bone growth in length VERTEBRES Classification of the vertebrae 1) free vertebrae; - cervical vertebrae, vertebrae cervicales, - 7; - thoracic vertebrae, vertebrae titoracicae, 12; - lumbar vertebrae, vertebrae himbales, - 5; 2) fused vertebrae; - sacrum, os sacrum, - 5; - coccyx, os coccygls, ~ 3-5. Common features with free ioipoikip. Vertebra, vertebra, composed of three main parts (Figure 3); 1, Body of the body, corpus vertebrae. 2, Poznoic arch, arctis vertebrae: the legs of the vertebral arch, peciicidi arcus vertebrae, form the body and the vertebral arch; five
6 - vertebral foramen, / oga / "en vertehrale, limited by the body and arch of the vertebra; the openings of all vertebrae form the vertebral canal, canalis vertebral is. 3. The processes of the vertebra, / j / "ocejiiw vertebrae: a) the spinous process, processus spinosus, - unpaired; located behind, along the median line; b) transversely, paired; located in the frontal plane; c) upper and lower articular processes, proccwiw articularis superior et pmcessus articularis inferior, - paired; Upper vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis superior, located between the body and the upper articular process.Inferior vertebral notch, incisura vertebralis inferior, located between the body and the lower articular process; in size, it is larger than the upper notch.Intervertebral foramen, / oga / pen intervertebrale, is formed when adjacent vertebrae (vertebral notches) are connected; spinal nerves and blood vessels pass through it. Orientation of the vertebra: - the vertebral body is turned forward; - the spinous process is directed backward; - the upper vertebral notch (insignificant) is facing up; - the lower vertebral notch (deep) is located below. nat vertebrae; 2 - pcdiculus arcus vertebrae; 3 - proccssus articularis superior; 4 - processus articularis inferior; 5 - processus spinosus; 6 - arcus vertebrae; 7 - processus transversus; 8 - foramen vertebrale; 9 - incisura vertebralis inferior; 10 - incisura vertebralis superior.
7 Cervical vertebrae The main distinguishing feature of the cervical vertebrae (vertebrae cervicales) is the presence of a hole in the transverse process, / oga / pep processus transversus; vertebral vessels pass through it. 1) atlas and axial, atlas et axis, (1st and 2nd vertebrae) - atypical vertebrae; 2) 3-7 cervical vertebrae are typical vertebrae. T type vertebrae: - vertebral bodies of small size, have a saddle shape; - the vertebral foramen are large, triangular; - the groove of the spinal nerve, sulcus nervi spinalis, - runs along the upper surface of the transverse processes (Fig. 4); - anterior and posterior tubercles, tuberculum anterius et posterius, - located in front and behind at the end of the transverse process; - spinous processes are short, directed somewhat downward; bifurcated at the end; - the articular processes are short, located obliquely between the frontal and horizontal planes; the upper articular processes are directed backward and upward, the lower ones forward and downward. The anterior tubercle, tuberculum anterius, the VI vertebra is more developed - the sleepy tubercle, tuberculum caroticum, (the common carotid artery is pressed against it during bleeding). VII cervical vertebra - protruding vertebra, vertebra prominens: its spinous process is longer, thickened at the end; its tip is well felt under the skin. Atypical vertebrae: Atlas, atlas The 1st cervical vertebra lacks a body, spinous and articular processes. It consists of anterior and posterior arches, as well as lateral masses: 1) anterior arch, arcus anterior: - anterior tubercle, tuberculum anterius, located on the outer (anterior) surface (Fig. 5); - the fossa of the tooth, fo vea dentis, is located on its inner (back) surface; Figure: 4. The seventh cervical vertebra. 1- tubcrculurn poslcrius; 2 - sulcus nervi spinalis; 3 - tubcrculurn anterius; 4 - proccssus transversus; 5 - corpus vertebrae; 6 - foram en proccssus transversus; 7 - proccssus articularis superior; 8 - proccssus articularis inferior; 9 - processus spinosus; 10 - foramen vcrtcbrale.
8 2) lateral masses, massae lalemles: - upper glenoid fossa, / overt articularis superior, oval, deep; serves to connect with the condyles of the occipital bone; - lower glenoid fossa, fovea articularis inferior, rounded, insignificant in depth; serves for eodieii with an axial vertebra; - the transverse process, processus iransversus, has / orame / iprocessus transversus ", does not contain the grooves of the spinal nerve and tubercles; 3) the posterior arch, arcus posterior: the posterior tubercle, tuberculum posterius-, - the groove of the vertebral artery, sulcus arteriue vertebralis, passes behind the lateral masses on the upper surface of the posterior arch. Axial vertebra, axis odontoid process (tooth), dem, is located on the upper surface of the vertebral body (Fig. b); this is the body of the first cervical vertebra that has moved in the process of development and accreted: a) apex of the tooth, apex deiitis ; b) the anterior articular surface iy6a, facies articularis anterior ilentis, connects to the fossa of the atlas tooth; c) the posterior articular surface of the lip, facies articularis posterior dentis, ~ contacts the transverse ligament of the atlas; Fig. 5. Ltlapt. 1 processus irnnsvcrsus; 2 - massa Itttoralis; 3 - nrcus anterior; 4 - lubcrculum unterius; 5 - fovea articularis superior: 6 - foram en processus transversus; 7 - sulcus arteriue vertebralis; 8 - arcus posterior; 9 tuberculum posterius; 10 - foramen vertcbrale; 11 - fovea dentis. 8 PhC. 6. OCCDOit noidoitok. 1 - processus iransversus; 2 - dens; 3 apex donlis; 4 - facies articularis posterior dentis; 5 - fiicies articularis superior; 6 - foramen proccssus transversus; 7 - processus articularis inferior; 8 - processus spinosus; 9 - foramen vertebrale; 10-arcus vertebrae.
9 - a transverse process, processus transversus, has a foramen processus transversus; does not contain spinal nerve furrows and tubercles; - the upper articular surface, / and with / ej articularis superior, - an analogue of the upper articular process; serves for articulation with the lower articular surfaces of the lateral masses of the atlas. Thoracic vertebrae The main distinguishing feature of the thoracic vertebrae (vertebrae thoracicae) is the presence of costal fossa and half-fovea on the vertebral body, as well as costal fossa on the transverse processes: a) a complete costal fossa, fovea coslalis, located on the body of the I, XIXII vertebrae; serves to attach the head of the same rib; b) the upper costal fossa (half-well), / ov ea coslalis superior, is located on the body of the P-X vertebrae (Fig. 7.8); c) the lower costal fossa (half-frame), fo vea coslalis inferior, located on the body of the I-IX vertebrae; d) the upper and lower costal half-frames of adjacent vertebrae with each other form a single articular platform for the rib head; e) costal fossa of the transverse process, fovea coslalis processus Iransversus, located on the transverse process of 1-X vertebrae; - the thoracic vertebrae are larger than the cervical; Th, ThiMx CO 1 G Thv Fig. 7. Thoracic vertebra. 1 - proccssus articularis superior; 2 - incisura vcrtcbralis superior; 3 - fovea costaiis superior; 4 - corpus vertebrae; 5 - fovea costaiis inferior; 6 - incisura verlebralis inferior; 7 - processus articularis inferior; 8 - processus spinosus; 9 - processus transversus; 10 - fovea coslalis processus transversus. Th XI-XIl Fig. 8. Layout of the costal fossa. 1 - fovea coslalis; 2 - fovea coslalis inferior; 3 - fovea costaiis superior; 4 - fovea coslalis processus transversus; 5 - processus spinosus; 6 - processus transversus. nine
10 - the height of the bodies of the thoracic vertebrae from the 1st to the CP-th gradually increases; their transverse size increases; - the articular processes of the thoracic vertebrae are frontal: the articular surface of the upper ones is turned backward, the lower ones - forward; - the transverse processes are turned laterally and backward; - the spinous processes of the thoracic vertebrae are longer than those of the cervical; tilted downwards and cranially superimposed on each other. Lumbar vertebrae The lumbar vertebrae, vertebrae lumbales, have a massive body (see Fig. 3); on the preparation are determined by the exclusion method for the absence of foramen processus transversus elfoveae coslales: - the body of the lumbar vertebra is bean-shaped; body height and width gradually increase from 1st to V-ro vertebrae; - the articular surfaces of the articular processes are located in the sapptal plane: in the upper processes they are directed medially, in the lower ones - laterally; - the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebrae are located in the frontal plane; - spinous processes are short, flat, directed backward; are located almost on the same level with the vertebral body; - the vertebral foramen is triangular. Sacrum The sacrum, os sacrum, consists of five fused sacral vertebrae, vertebrae sacrales: 1) the base of the sacrum, basis ossis sacri, - the upper, wide section: - the upper articular process, processus articularis superior, - paired; connects with the lower articular process of the V-ro of the lumbar vertebra; - cape, promontorium, - an anterior protrusion, formed at the junction of the sacrum with the body of the V-ro lumbar vertebra; 2) the apex of the sacrum, apex ossis sacri: - sacral horn, cornu ^ acra / e, - paired; is a rudiment of the lower articular process (Fig. 9); 3) the anterior (pelvic) surface, / ac / e5 anterior (pelvina): - transverse lines, Ppeae Iransversae, are formed as a result of fusion of the bodies of the sacral vertebrae; - pelvic sacral osvsrst, foramina sacralia pelvina; 4) back n0bepxh0ctb, yif / c / ei dorsalis-. ten
11 - median sacral crest, crista sacral is mediana, - unpaired; formed by fusion of spinous processes; - intermediate sacral ridge, crista sacralis intermedia, - paired; formed as a result of the fusion of articular processes; - dorsal sacral foramen, ugash /; w sacralia dorsalia; - lateral sacral crest, crista sacralis lateralis, ~ paired; arose during the fusion of transverse processes; 5) lateral part, pars lateralis: - ear-shaped surface, uac / e5 auricularis, connected to the similar surface of the pelvic bone; - sacral tuberosity, tuberositas sacralis, located posterior to the ear-shaped surface; connected by ligaments with the tuberosity of the pelvic bone. The sacral canal, canalis sacralis, runs throughout the sacrum; in the region of the apex ends with a sacral gap, hiatus sacralis. Orns1gation of the sacrum: - the base of the sacrum is turned upwards; - the top of the sacrum is directed downward; - the pelvic surface is oriented forward (concave); - the dorsal surface is turned back (convex, contains sacral ridges). A ^ "B Fig. 9. Sacrum and kop h and k. A - front view; B - rear view. 1- OS coccygis; 2 - apex ossis sacri; 3 - lincae iransversae; 4 - foramina sacralia pelvina; 5 - pars lateralis; 6 - basis ossis sacri; 7 - processus articularis superior; 8 - facies auricularis; 9 - foramina sacralia dorsalia; 10 - cornu sacrale; 11- comu coccygis; 12 - hiatus sacralis; 13 - crista sacralis intermedia; 14 - crista sacralis lateralis; 15 - crista sacralis mediana; 16 - tuberositas sacralis. 11
12 Coccyx Coccyx, OS coccygis, consists of 3-5 fused rudimentary vertebrae (Fig. 9): - coccygeal horns, cornua coccygea, are rudiments of the superior articular processes; they are connected by ligaments to the sacral horns. Ribs Ribs, coi / ae, depending on attachment, are classified into: 1. True ribs, costae vcrae, - seven pairs of upper ribs (I-VII); cartilaginous parts are connected to the sternum (Fig. 10). 2. False edges, costae sptm ae, -v \\\\\\ - X edges; are attached to the cartilage of the overlying rib, forming a costal arch, arcus costalis. 3. Oscillating ribs, costae Jluctuantes, - ribs XI and XII; end in the muscles of the abdominal wall. The rib consists of cartilaginous and bone parts; in the latter, the posterior end and the body are also distinguished (Fig. 11). CipocHHC ribs: 1. Cartilaginous part (costal cartilage), cartilago costalis, anterior, shorter part; 2. Bone part, os costale, - posterior, longer part: 1) posterior end, extremitasposterior, includes the head, neck and tubercle: - head of the rib, caput costae, connects to the vertebral bodies: - crest of the head of the rib, crista capitis costae, - divides the articular surface of the head into two parts (at II - X ribs); I, XI, XII have no ridge ribs, because the heads of these ribs are articulated with full pits on the bodies of the vertebrae of the same name; - the neck of the rib, sonita costae, - the narrow part of the rib; - the tubercle of the rib, tuberculum costae, is located between the neck and the body; - the articular surface of the rib tubercle, facies articularis tuberculi costae, serves to connect with the transverse process of the corresponding thoracic vertebra; - the protrusion of the tubercle of the rib, eminentia tuberculi costae, - ligaments are attached to it; tubercles are absent on the XI and XII ribs; 2) the body of the rib, corpus costae: - the angle of the rib, angulus costae, corresponds to the bend of the rib; coincides with tuberculum costae at the first rib; - rib groove, sulcus costae, runs along the lower edge of the rib; vessels and nerves are located in it; - bodies of P-HI ribs have inner and outer surfaces; top and bottom edges. 12
13 Oriental ribs: - the cartilaginous part of the rib is facing forward; - the head of the rib is directed backward; - along the lower edge there is a groove of the rib. Features of the I rib: - The body of the I rib has upper and lower surfaces; medial and lateral edges; - the tubercle of the anterior scalene muscle, luberculum musculi scaleiu anlehoris, is located on the upper surface of the I rib; the muscle of the same name is attached to it; - the groove of the subclavian vein, sulcus venae stibclaviae, located in front of the luberculum musculi scaleni anterioris; - the groove of the subclavian artery, sulcus arteriae subclaviae, located behind the luberculum musculi scaleni anterioris. Sternum The sternum, sternum, is a flat bone, consisting of three parts - the handle, body and xiphoid process (Fig. 10) Fig. 10. Chest. 1 - manubrium sterni; 2 - corpus sterni; 3 - processus xiphoideus; 4 - cartilago costalis; 5 - cor) 5us costae; 6 - collum costae; 7 - caput costae; 8 - incisura jugularis; 9 - incisura clavicularis; 10 - costae verac; 11 - costae spuriac; 12 - costae fluctuantes. Rice rib (L): II rib (B). 1 - facies articularis capitis costae; 2 - caput costae; 3 - collum costae; 4 - facies articularis tuberculi costae; 5-angulus costae; 6 - cori ^ us costae; 7 - sulcus venae subclaviae; 8 - tuberculum m. scaleni anterioris; 9 - sulcus arteriae subclaviac. 13
14 1. The handle of the sternum, manubrium sterni: - the jugular notch, incisura Jugularis, located above, in the middle; - clavicular notch, incisura clavicularis, - steam room; located on the side and top; serves to connect with the clavicle; - rib tenderloin, incisura costal is, - steam room; located on the side; serves to connect with the cartilage of the 1st rib; at the lower edge of the handle there is a half of the notch for the cartilage of the II-th rib, incisura costalis II; - the angle of the sternum, angulus sterni, is an anterior protrusion formed at the junction of the handle and the body. 2. The body of the sternum, corpus sterni: - the outer surface, / ac / ej externa, ~ convex; - inner surface, / ac / ej interna, - concave; - rib cuts, incisurae costales, - for Il-VlI-ro cartilage of the ribs. 3. The xiphoid process, processus xiphoideus, can be bifurcated at the end or has a hole. Orientation 1 "rudia: - the handle of the sternum is facing up; - the xiphoid process is directed downward; - the outer surface is facing forward (convex); - the inner surface is directed backward (concave). 14 SKULL Head skeleton - skull, cranium, includes the following sections: 1) cerebral skull, cranium cerebrale (neurocranium): - base of the skull, basis cranii; - roof (vault), calvaria; 2) facial skull, cranium viscerale (splanchnocranium). Bones М031Х1Н0Г0 Chersya; - occipital bone, os occipitalc, sphenoid bone, os sphenoidale; - frontal bone, os frontale; - lattice bone, os ethmoidale \\ - parietal bone, os parietale; - temporal bone, os temporale. Bones of the facial skull; - upper jaw, maxilla ", - palatine bone, ospalatinum; "zygomatic bone, os zygomaticum \\ - nasal bone, os nasale; - lacrimal bone, os lacrimale;
15 - lower nasal concha, concha nasalis inferior; - vomer, vomer, - the lower jaw, mandibula ", - the hyoid bone, os hyoideum. Occipital bone The occipital bone, os occipitale, forms the posterior part of the cerebral skull; in the center is the large occipital ridge, / ogatep magnum, which communicates the cranial cavity with vertebral canal (Fig. 12). It consists of the main and lateral parts, as well as the occipital scales. 1. The main part, pa / -5 basilaris: - clivus, clivtis, located on the inner surface; - pharyngeal tubercle, tuberculum pharyngeum, is on the outer surface; is the place of attachment of the fornix of the pharynx 2. Lateral part, pars lateralis, - steam room: - occipital condyle, condylus occipitalis, connects with the superior articular fossa of the atlas; - condyle a, fossa condylaris, located behind the condyle; 16 Fig. 12. Occipital bone. A - outside view; B - inside view. 1 - condylus occipitalis; 2 - foramen magnum; 3 - fossa condylaris; 4 - crista occipitalis externa; 5 - linea nuchae inferior; 6 - linea nuchae superior; 7 - protuberantia occipitalis extcma; 8 - linea nuchae suprema; 9 - probe in canalis hypogiossaiis; 10 - tuberculum pharyngeum; 11-clivus; 12 -processus jugularis; 13-p ars lateralis; 14-crista occipitalis inlema; 15 protuberanliaoccipitalis interna; 16-sulcussinussagiltalissuperioris; 17- margo lambdoideus; 18 - sulcus sinus transversi; 19 - margo mastoidcus; 20 - sulcus sinus sigmoidci; 21 - tuberculum jugulare. fifteen
16 - the condylar canal, canalis condylaris, opens at the bottom of the fossa of the same name; fickle; - the canal of the hypoglossal nerve, canalis hypoglossalis, penetrates the condyle in the middle; - the jugular notch, incisura Jugularis, is located on the outside of the lateral part; - the jugular process, processus jugularis, lies behind the jugular notch; - the groove of the sigmoid sinus, sulcus sinus sigmoidei, runs medial to the jugular process; - the jugular tubercle, tuberculum jugulare, is located near the foramen magnum, above the hypoglossal nerve canal. 3. Occipital scales, squama occipitalis: 1) external n0bcpxh0ctb, yac / ei externa ". - external occipital protuberance, protuberantia occipitalis externa", - external occipital crest, crista occipitalis externa, descends along the midline from the protuberantia occipitalis downward from the protuberantia occipitalis line, Npea pisiae superior, - the lower nuchae line, Nnea nuchae inferior, - the highest nuchae line, Nnea nuchae suprema, located above the Nnea nuchae superior, unstable; - lambdoid edge, margo lambdoideus, located above and laterally; adjacent to the parietal bone; - the mastoid margin, margo mastoideus, located below and laterally; connects with the mastoid process of the temporal bone; 2) internal (cerebral) surface, / I s / ev interna (cerebraus): - cruciform eminence, eminentia crticiformis: a) internal occipital protuberance, protuberantia occipitalis interna, located in the center of eminenlia cruciformis; b) the internal occipital crest, crista occipitalis interna, - located below, continuing to the large occipital foramen; c) the groove of the superior sagittal sinus, sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris, goes up from protuberantia occipitalis interna; d) the groove of the transverse sinus, sulcus sinus transversi, is located on the sides of the protuberantia occipitalis interna. 1 b Orientation of the occipital koci h: - the basilar part is facing forward (the slope is directed upward); - the scales are oriented back and up; - the occipital condyles are turned down.
17 Parietal bone Parietal koet, osparietale, - steam room; takes part in the formation of the roof of the skull, the outer and inner surfaces are distinguished in it; it has four edges and four corners (fig. 13). 1. Outside the parietal braid 1 and 1) the outer surface, / d with / ej externa: - parietal tubercle, tuber parietale \\ lower temporal line, Ipea temporalis inferior, runs parallel to the lower (scaly) edge; - the superior temporal line, Ipea temporalis superior, located above the previous one; 2) the inner (cerebral) surface, / ac / ej interna (^ cerebralis): - the groove of the superior sagittal sinus, sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris, located in the region of the upper edge; - the groove of the sigmoid sinus, sulcus sinus sigmoidei, is located in the mastoid angle; - arterial sulci, sulci arteriosi ", - sulcus of the middle meningeal artery, sulcus arteriae meningeae mediae, runs from angulus sphenoidalis upward and posteriorly; digital impressions, impressiones digitatae \\ - cerebral protrusions, in" 5th cerehralia-. 10 Fig. 13. Parietal bone A - outer surface (left bone); B - inner surface (right bone). 1 - margo squamosus; 2 - angulus sphenoidalis; 3 - linea temporalis inferior; 4 - mnrgo frontalis; 5 - angulus frontalis; 6 - margo sagittalis ; 7 - foramen parietale; 8 - tuber parietale; 9 - angulus occipitalis; 10 - margo occipitalis; 11- linea temporalis superior: 12 - angulus mastoideus; 13 - sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris; 14 - sulcus sinus sigmoidei; 15 - sulcus arteriae meningeae mediae, 17
18 - dimples vp & wyn ^ mm, foveolaegranulates, located in the area of \u200b\u200bsulcus sinus sagittalis superioris-, - parietal foramen, foram en parietale, located near the sagittal edge; fickle. 2. The edges of the parietal cosga: - the sagittal (upper) edge, margo sagittalis (superior), located above; connects to the same edge of the opposite bone; - the frontal (front) edge, margo frontalis (anterior), connects to the scales of the frontal bone; - the occipital (posterior) edge, margo occipitalis (posterior), connects to the scales of the occipital bone; - scaly (lower) edge, margo squamosus (inferior), connects to the temporal bone. 3. In the parietal kocih: - frontal angle, angulusfrontalis, - anterior-superior; - occipital angle, angulus occipitalis, - posterior-superior; - wedge-shaped angle, angulus sphenoidalis, - antero-inferior; - mastoid angle, angulus mastoideus, - posterior-inferior. Orientation of the parietal plait: - the outer surface (convex) is facing the lateral side; - the inner surface is directed to the medial side (vogue; arterial grooves pass on it); - the wedge-shaped angle is turned forward and downward (the most acute; the inner surface begins the furrow of the middle meningeal artery, which goes from bottom to top and back). Frontal bone The frontal bone, osfrontale, is located in the front of the skull. It consists of the frontal scales, orbital and nasal parts: 1. Frontal scales, squama frontalis: 1) internal (cerebral) surface, yaciej interna (cerebralis), - concave (Fig. 14): - groove of the superior sagittal sinus, sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris, located in the midline; - forehead ny crest, crista frontalis, is located downward from sulcus sinus sagittalis superioris-, - blind hole, ugate / 1 caecum, located at the lower end of crista frontalis ", - arterial grooves, sutci arteriosi; - digital impressions, impressiones digitatae ", 1 8
19 - cerebral BbicTynbi, 7 "ga cerebralia" - dimples of grgl \\ ulyapsh, / o \\ eo1ae gramilares, located in the area of \u200b\u200bsukus sinus sagittaiis superions \\ 2) outer surface, yi / ciei externa, - convex: - supraorbital margin, margo supraorbital separates the scales from the orbital part; - the supraorbital notch (supraorbital foramen), incisura supraorbitalis (foramen supraorbitale) is located at the medial end of the margo supraorbitalis; - the zygomatic process, processus zygomaticus, is a continuation of margo supraorbitalis in the lateral direction; - the temporal line, Ipea temporalis, runs up and back from the processus zygomaticus; - the brow arch, arcus superciliaris, is located above the medial part of the margo supraorbitalis; - frontal tubercle, tuberfrontale-, - nose bridge, glabella, is located between the brow ridges. 2. Orbital part, p arsogy1ax, part I: 1) cerebral surface, uyas / e5 cerebral is \\ - digital impressions, impressiones digitatae; - cerebral protrusions, 7mga cerebralia \\ \\ In GB 15 "9 Fig. 14. Frontal bone. A - outer surface; B - inner surface. 1 - sulcus sinus sagittaiis superioris; 2 - crista frontalis; 3 - linea temporalis; 4 - fossa glandulac lacrimalis; 5 - sinus frontalis; 6 - incisura ethmoidalis; 7 - fovea irochlcaris; 8 - foramen supraorbitale; 9 - pars orbitalis; 10 - processus zygomaticus; 11 - foveolae cthmoidales; 12 -squam a frontalis; 13 - tuella tuella : 15-spina nasalis; 16-pars nasalis; arcus supcrciliaris; 18 - margo supraorbitalis. 19
20 2) orbital (lower) surface, / i with / ei orbitalis (inferior) -. - The fossa of the lacrimal gland, fossa glandulae lacrimalis, is located laterally, in the region of the zygomatic process; - block fossa, fovea trochlearls, is located on the medial side; - block spine, spina trochlearls, - bones! the spine within fovea irochlearis- is the place of fixation of the tendon of the superior oblique muscle of the eyeball; - ethmoid dimples, / oveo / ae ethmoidales, are located at the medial edge of the orbital part; cover the cells of the ethmoid labyrinth; - anterior and posterior lattice openings (notches), foramina ethmoidalla aiuerlus et posterius (Incisurae ethmoidales anterior et posterior), are located at the medial edge of the orbital part, on the medial wall of the orbit. 3. Nasal part, / jarj nasalis: - lattice notch, incisura ethmoidalis, located behind the pars nasalis, between the orbital parts; - nasal spine, spina nasalis, - a protrusion downwards, located in the middle of the nose; - the frontal sinus, sinus frontalis, is divided by a septum (septum sinuum frontalium) into two asymmetrical parts; can be multi-chamber; sometimes absent; - openings of the frontal sinus, aperturae sinuum frontalium, located near the spina nasalis. Frontal bone orientation: - the outer surface is directed forward (frontal tubercles, eyebrows); - the inner surface is turned back (groove of the superior sagittal sinus); - the nasal spine is directed downward. Ethmoid bone Ethmoid bone, os ethmoidale, fills the notch of the frontal bone of the same name. It consists of perforated and perpendicular plates, as well as a lattice labyrinth (Fig. 15). The nasal (ethmoid) plate, lamina cribrosa, separates the nasal cavity and the anterior cranial fossa. On it are located: - the cock's comb, crista galli ", - the wings of the cock comb, alae crlstae galli, are in front; - a blind hole, foramen caecum, limited by alae cristae galli, (sometimes it lies entirely in the frontal bone); 20
21 - from the cribrae laminae cnbrosae \\ through them the olfactory nerves penetrate from the nasal cavity, pp. olfactorii. 2. Lattice labyrinth, labynnthus ethmoidalis, - paired; - orbital plate, lamina orbitalis, - solid; located on the lateral side; is part of the medial wall of the orbit; - the cells of the ethmoid bone, cellulae ethmoidales, (anterior, middle and posterior, cellulae etmoiclales anteriores, medii etposteriores) are the cavities of the ethmoid labyrinth; - ethmoidal vesicle, bulla ethmoidalis, - the largest cell of the ethmoid bone; localized in the posterior part of the labyrinth; - upper nasal concha, concha nasalis superior, - small; located on the medial surface of the labyrinth in its posterior part; - middle turbinate, concha nasalis media, larger than the previous one; located under it; - the highest nasal concha, concha nasalis suprema, is located above the concha nasalis superior, unstable; - the upper nasal passage, meatus nasi medius, located between the upper and middle turbinates; - the middle nasal passage, meatus nasi medius, is located under the middle nasal concha; - hooked process, processus uncinatus, - outgrowth at the posterior end of the middle nasal concha; fickle; - trellised funnel, infundibulum etlmoidale, opens between the processus uncinatus et bulla ethmoidalis-, connects the frontal sinus and the middle nasal passage. 3. The perpendicular plate, lamina perpendicularis, is part of the bony septum of the nose; connects with the nasal bones, vomer and sphenoid bone (crista sphenoidalis), as well as with the cartilaginous septum of the nose. Lattice orientation; - the cockscomb is directed up and forward; - the perforated plate is directed upwards; - the perpendicular plate is facing down. Figure: 15. Lattice bone. 1 - crista galli; 2 - ala crista galli; 3 - lam ina cribrosa; 4 - cellulae ethm oidales; 5 - labyriiilhus ethm oidalis; 6 - lam ina pefendicularis; 7 - concha nasalis media; 8 - concha nasalis superior; 9 - concha nasalis suprema; 10 - lamina orbitalis. 21
22 Sphenoid bone The sphenoid bone, os sphenoidale, lies in the center of the base of the skull. It consists of a body, paired - small and large wings, as well as a paired pterygoid process (Fig. 16,17). 1. The body of the wedge-shaped cosggi, corpus ossis sphenoidalis, is located in the middle; located on the body: - Turkish saddle, sella turcica: a) pituitary fossa, / ossa hypophysialis, is a depression in the center of the Turkish saddle, which is a receptacle for the pituitary gland; Figure: 16. Sphenoid bone. A - top view; B - rear view. 1 - a1a minor; 2 - sulcus prechiasmatis; 3 - tuberculum sellae; 4 - fossa hypophysialis; 5 - canalis opticus; 6 - fissura orbitalis superior; 7 - foramen rotundum; 8 - facies cerebralis; 9 - foramen spinosum; 10 - foramen ovale; 11 - sulcus caroticus; 12 - dorsum sellae; 13 - tuberculum clinoideum posterius; 14 - lingula sphenoidalis; 15 - tuberculum citnotdeum anterius; 16-alam ajor; 1 7 -fossa scs ^ hoidea; 18-lam ina lateralis; 19-lam ina medialis; 20 - rostrum sphenoidale; 21 - sofis ossis sphenoidalis; 22 - proccssus plerygoidcus; 23 - hamulus pterygoideus; 24 - fossa pterygoidea; 25 - canalis pterygoideus. 22
23 b) the back of the Turkish saddle, dorsum sellae, limits the pituitary fossa from behind; has a paired outgrowth, facing up and forward - a posterior inclined process, tuberculum dinoideum posterius \\ c) a tubercle of the saddle, tuberculum sellae, limits the pituitary fossa in front; - pre-crossing groove, sulcus prechiasmatis, is located in front of the tuberculum sellae ", it contains the intersection of the optic nerves; - the carotid groove, sulcus caroticus, located on the lateral side of the sella turcica-, the internal carotid artery passes through it; - the wedge-shaped tongue, lingula sphenoidalis, limits sidcus caroticus laterally and from behind; - sphenoid crest, crista sphenoidalis, is located on the front surface of the body of the sphenoid bone; - sphenoid shells, conchae sphenoidales, located on the sides of crista sphenoidalis ", - aperture of the sphenoid sinus, apertura sinus sphenoidalis, - body surface; - the sphenoid sinus, sinus sphenoidalis, divided into two asymmetrical halves by a septum (septum sinuum sphenoidalium); can be multi-chamber; - a wedge-shaped keel, rostrum sphenoidale, is a continuation of crista sphenoidalis on the lower surface. 2. Lesser wing, ala minor, - paired: - optic canal, sapache optiats, located at the base of the lesser wing; - upper orbital vannb, fissura orbitalis superior, located between the small and large wings; - anterior inclined process, tuberculum dinoideum anterius, paired; facing back, located lateral to the sidcus caroticus. 3. Large wing, ala major. On top of the large wing 1) the cerebral surface, / ac / ej cerebralis, is concave; facing the cranial cavity: - digital impressions, impressiones digitatae; - cerebral protrusions, yi / ga cerebraliw, - round hole, / ogatei rotundum; - oval hole, yogi / un ovale; - spinous opening, foramen spinosum ", 2) the orbital surface, uac / e5 orbitalis, facing the orbit; 23
24 3) the temporal surface, / a c / ej temporalis: - the infratemporal crest, crista infratemporalis, located in its lower part; 4) the maxillary surface, / ac / e ^ maxillaris, is directed towards the tubercle of the upper jaw. The edges of the large wing - scaly (posterior) edge, margo squamosus (posterior), connects to the scales of the temporal bone; - the zygomatic (anterior) edge, margo zygomaticus (anterior), separates the temporal surface from the orbital; connects to the zygomatic bone; - frontal edge, margo frontalis, located above and in front; connects to the bone of the same name; - the parietal edge, margo parietalis, connects to the bone of the same name. 4. Wing; 1st process, pgastclepterygoidexis, - paired; departure of the body vertically downward at the base of the large wings: - the pterygoid canal, canalispterygoideus, penetrates it at the base; - medial plate, lamina medialis ", -lateral plate, lamina lateralis-, - scaphoid t cl, fossa scaphoidea, - a slight extension in the upper part of the medial plate; Fig. 17. Sphenoid bone. Front view. 1 - margo parietalis; 2 - ala major; 3 - ala minor; 4 - canalis opticus; 5 - concha sphenoidalis; 6 - sinus sphenoidalis; 7 - fissura orbitalis superior; 8 - facies orbitalis; 9 - margo frontalis; 10 - margo squamosus; 11 - margo zygomaticus; 12 - facies maxillaris; 13 - incisura pterygoidca; 14 - lamina medialis; 15 - canalis pterygoideus; 16 - crista sphenoidalis; 17 - hamulus pterygoideus; 18 - lamina lateralis; 19 - foramen rotundum; 20 - crista infratemporalis; 21 - facies temporalis.
25 - pterygoid hook, hamuhispte) ygoicleiis, - outgrowth in the lower part of the medial plate; - the pterygoid fossa, fossa pterygoidca, located behind, between the lateral and medial plates; - wing notch, incisura pterygoldea, located below between the plates; it includes the pyramidal process of the palatine bone; - a large palatine groove, sulcus palatiints major, runs along the anterior edge of the pterygoid process. Orientation of the sphenoid bone: - Pterygoid processes are directed downward; - the pituitary fossa is turned up; - on the front surface of the body, the aperture of the sphenoid sinus opens; the back of the Turkish saddle is turned back; The temporal bone The temporal bone, os temporale, - steam room; located between the occipital and sphenoid bones; contains the organ of hearing and balance; the most important vessels and nerves pass through it. The temporal bone consists of a stony, tympanic, mastoid and scaly parts (Fig. 18,19). 1. The stony part (vashmit.a), rag5pelivsa (pyramis), has the shape of a three-grained pyramid; the top and the base are distinguished in it; front, back and bottom surfaces; anterior, posterior and upper edges, Chasgi 11iram1i 1) apex of the pyramid, apex pyramis, facing forward and medially; in the apex area open: - internal sleepy opening, / drame / i sagochsit internum, - muscular-tubal canal, canalis musculotubarius ", 2) the base of the pyramid, basis pyramis, is covered by the tympanic part. The surfaces of the pyramid and the formations on them 1) the front surface , facies anterior, facing the middle cranial fossa: - stony-scaly fissure, // l ^ ngya petrosquamosa, separates the pyramid from the scales; - trigeminal depression, impressio trigemini, located closer to the apex of the pyramid (adjacent to the trigeminal nerve node); - cleft canal a large stony nerve, hiatus canalis n. pelrosi majoris, located medially; continues into the groove of the same name (sulcus n. petrosi majoris) ". 25
26 - cleft of the canal of the small stony nerve, hiatus canalis, item petrosi minoris, located lateral; continues into the groove of the same name (sulcus n. pelrosi minoris); - arcuate in elevation, eminentia arcuata, located in the middle of the anterior surface; corresponds to the anterior semicircular canal of the labyrinth; - the roof of the tympanic cavity, legmen lympani, is the area lying behind the eminentia arcuala; 2) the posterior surface, uas / e5posterior, faces the posterior cranial fossa: - the internal auditory opening, porus acusticus internus, leads to the internal auditory canal, meatus acusticus internus (the facial and precochlear nerves pass); - subarc fossa, fossa subarcuata, located posterior to porus acusticus internus, under eminentia arcuata; - external opening of the water supply of the vestibule, apertura externa aqueclucius veslibuli, - a slight gap; lies it lateral and below fossa subarcuata; 3) the lower surface of the pyramid, y a c / e i inferior, is directed to the outer base of the skull: 12 Fig. 18. Temporal bone (right). A - outside view; B - inside view. 1 - squama temporalis; 2 - processus zygomaticus; 3 - fossa mandibularis; 4 - fissura tympanosquamosa; 5 - proccssus styloidcus; 6 - pars tyrapanica; 7 - porus acusticus externus; 8 - pars mastoidea; 9 - incisura mastoidea; 10 - foramen mastoideum; 11 - incisura mastoidea; 12 - porus acusticus intcmus; 13 - eminentia arcuata; 14 - legmen tympani; 15 - sulcus sinus petrosi superioris; 16 - sulcus sinus sigmoidei; 17 - apertura externa aqueductus vestibuli; 18 - fossa subarcuata; 19 - sulcus sinus petrosi inferioris; 20 - apex pyramis; 21 - impressio trigemini. 2 6
27 - jugular shk &, fossajugiilaris, located in the back of the facies inferior; - outside sleepy hole, foram en carolicum externum, located in front of fossa Jugularis \\ leads into the carotid canal, canalis caroticus, in which the internal carotid artery passes; - petrous dimple, / b and “/ I pelmsa, is a small depression located in the scallop separating the foramen carolic um exlemum from the fossa jugiilaris; - the lower opening of the tympanic tubule, apetiura inferior canaliculi tympanici, opens at the bottom of the fossula petrosa; - w illoid process, processus styloideus, - w illoid opening, ugyashen stylomasloideum, is located between processus slyloideus and processus masloideus. The edges of the pyramid and the formations located on them 1) the anterior edge, maigo anterior, is located on the lateral side of the apex of the pyramid; a muscular-tubal canal opens under it; 2) the upper edge, margo superior, separates the anterior and posterior surfaces; - the groove of the superior stony sinus, sulcus sinuspetrosisuperioris, runs along the margo superior, 3) the posterior edge, margo posterior, separates the posterior and lower surfaces; - the groove of the lower stony sinus, sulcus sinus petrosi inferioris, runs along the margo posterior; Figure: 19. Temporal bone (right). Bottom view. I - fissura pctrosqiiam osa; 2 - fissura pclrotympanica; 3 - canalis musciilotubarius; 4 - foramen caroticum inlernum; 5 - apex pyramis; 6 - foramen caroticum externum; 7 - sulcus sinus petrosi inferioris; 8 - fossula petrosa; 9 - apcrtura externa canaliculi cochleae; foramen canaliculi mastoidei; II - fossa jugularis; 12 - foramen stylom astoideum; 13 - sulcus arteriae occipitalis; 14 - incisura mastoidea; 15 ~ processus mastoidcus; 16 - porus acusticus exiernus; 17 -p ars tympanica; 18-processus styloidcus; 19 - fossa mandibularis; 20 - tuberculum articulare; 21 - processus zygomaticus. 2 7
28 - the outer opening of the cochlear tubule, externa canaliciili cochleae, - a small depression in the region of the posterior end of the margo posterior. 2. Vyribaptya part, pars tympaiuca, limits the outside of the external auditory canal; - the external auditory opening, porus acusticus externus, leads to the external auditory canal, meatus acusticus externus, which opens into the tympanic cavity, cavitas tympanica-, - drum-mastoid manb, fissura tympanomastoidea, separates /; I / ^ tympanica and pars mastoidea; drum-scaly uienb, / lssura tympanosquamosa, separates the rye tympanica and pars squamosa; a part of the pars petrosa is wedged into it, therefore it is divided into: a) stony-scaly sch sl, / w “ha petrosquamosa; b) stony-drum mcnb, / lssurapetrotympanica (a drum string comes out of it, chorda tympani). 3. The mastoid part, mastoidea, is located behind the external auditory canal: - the mastoid process, processus mastoideus; - the parietal notch, incisura parietalis, is located between the scales and the mastoid process; the mastoid corner of the parietal bone enters it; - the mastoid notch, incisura mastoidea, limits the mastoid process from the medial side; - the groove of the occipital artery, sulcus arteriae occipitalis, is located between the incisura mastoidea and the medial edge of the mastoid; - the mastoid opening, / bgyatel mastoideum, is located on the posterior surface of the mastoid process; fickle; - the groove of the sigmoid sinus, sulcus sinus sigmoidei, is located on the medial surface of the pars mastoidea; the mastoideum will open / open into it; - mastoid cells, cellulae mastoideae, - mastoid cavities; - mastoid cave, antrum mastoideum, - the largest cell; communicates with the tympanic cavity. 4. The scaly part, pars squamosa, is part of the roof of the skull: 1) the cerebral (inner) surface, / ac / e5 cerebralis (interna) \\ arterial grooves, sulci arteriosi ", - digital impressions, impressiones digitatae \\ - cerebral in s type, cerebralla \\ 2) temporal (outer) surface, facies temporalis (externa): zygomatic process, processus zygomaticus ", mandibular fossa, fossa mandibularis, takes part in the formation of the temporomandibular joint; 28
29 - articular tubercle, tuberculum articulare, located in front, / own mandibularis. Orientation of the temporal space: - the top of the pyramid is facing forward and medially; - the mastoid process is directed back and down; - the external auditory canal is facing the lateral side; - the internal auditory canal is directed to the medial side; - upward facing arcuate elevation; - the styloid process is directed downward. Canals of the temporal bone The facial canal, canalis facialis, begins at the bottom of the mealus acusticus iiuenms, then it goes laterally in the thickness of the pyramid (Fig. 20) to hiatus canalis iien ipelrosi majoris, where it forms a bend at an angle of 90 degrees - the knee of the lary canal, genicuhtm canalis facialis ... Further, the canal in the horizontal plane is directed backwards and, bending around the tympanic cavity, turns vertically downward, ending in the foramen stylomastoideum. The canal of the large stony nerve and the tubule of the tympanic string branch off from the facial canal. The canal of the large stony nerve, canalis n. Pelrosi majoris, starts from canalis facialis in the region of ge / k "sc / and / and canalis facialis, opening on the anterior surface of the temporal bone pyramid by means of hiatus canalis n. Petrosi majoris. Drum string canal, canaliculus chordae tympani, starts from canalis facialis several foramen stylomastoideum, passes through the tympanic cavity and ends within the stony-tympanic fissure, fissura petrotympanica.The tympanic tubule, canaliculus tympanicus, begins ъ / ossiilapetrosa through the apertura inferior canalicu 20. temporal bone. I - antrum mastoidcum; 2 - tegmcn tympnni; 3 - canalis semicircularis lateralis; 4 - canalis semicircularis anterior; 5 - hiatus canalis nervi petrosi majoris; 6 - hiatus canalis nervi petrosi minoris; 7 - impressio trigemini; 8 - impressio trigemini; 8 internum; 9 - foramen cnroticum extcmum; Yu-eond in canalis facialis; II - foramen stylomastoideum ; 12 - cellulac mastoideae. 29
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