To calculate the labor rate, it is necessary to have information that can be obtained on the basis of a study of the use of working time. In practice, when studying the cost of working time, two methods are used: direct measurements and momentary observations. On the basis of direct measurements of the cost of working time, the duration of the employee's employment with certain jobs and the loss of time for various reasons are determined. Direct measurements are carried out using photographs of working time, self-photography, timing, photo timing, filming.

Conducting observations for each of their types includes several stages: preparation for observation, conducting, processing and analyzing the results of the study.

Working time photo - a type of observation, during which all the time spent during a shift or part of it is studied. They can be individual, group and brigade.

The purpose of the photo - identifying losses of working time, establishing the causes that caused them, developing measures to eliminate losses, obtaining data for the development of time standards and the number of employees.

When taking a photograph of working time, all types of work performed are recorded in a special observation sheet with an accuracy of one minute (the beginning and end of this work or downtime). Photo processing consists in determining the composition and structure of working time and identifying losses, drawing up a balance of working time and designing a new, rational balance. To do this, the data obtained are grouped according to the types of work performed (operational, maintenance of the workplace, preparatory and final work, rest and personal needs), work not provided for by the production task, and downtime. Their share is calculated, and the data obtained are compared with the normative ones, and based on the development of organizational and technical measures, they are brought into line if there are deviations. The higher the proportion of operational work, the better the use of working time.

Self-photograph of working time carried out by the employee. It performs the functions of an observer on its own. This method of studying the cost of working time is very effective for identifying losses caused by shortcomings in the organization of production, downtime due to the lack of raw materials, equipment breakdowns, does not require the involvement of specialists. At the same time, the photograph itself does not allow revealing reliable losses of working time due to the fault of the employee himself.

Timing - a method of studying the cost of working time with cyclically repeating elements of the labor process. This may be operational, preparatory and final work or work to maintain the workplace. Timing is used to calculate and clarify existing labor standards; checking the norms established by calculation; learning best practices with a view to disseminating them. The use of timing observations, as practice has shown, is economically feasible in large-scale and mass production due to the high labor intensity of its implementation.

Timing is called continuous if all elements are its object operational time, and selective, if individual elements of operational time or technological operation are measured.

In preparation for timing, the work under study is divided into elements (techniques, transitions, or other completed actions). The degree of division of work into constituent elements is determined by the characteristics of production. Then they set the boundaries between the elements of the labor process, which are called fixing points.

The accuracy of measurements during timing observations is usually 0.1 s. To obtain reliable data on the time spent, it is necessary to time each element of the labor process 10 or more times. As a result of research for each element of the labor process, a series of figures is obtained, called the time series. When evaluating this series, the degree of its stability is important, which is determined on the basis of the calculation of the stability coefficient K u:

Ky=Tmax/Tmin

where Tmax and Tmin- are the maximum and minimum duration of the observed element of the operation, s.

The result obtained is compared with the standard. If the stability coefficient exceeds it, then the maximum and minimum values ​​​​are excluded from the series. Then, according to the remaining data, the stability of the time series is re-checked. If this time it does not exceed the established standard, the series is considered stable.

Based on the remaining time spent, the arithmetic mean duration of the element is calculated, which will be considered the time spent on the execution of the element of the workflow. Timekeeping is carried out with the help of stopwatches, photo and film equipment.

Photochronometry is a combination of working time photography and timekeeping. It allows you to get data on the cost structure of the employee's working time during the shift, on the duration of individual elements of the labor process.

Filming the labor process is carried out in order to study the efficiency and rationality of the employee's labor movements, to measure the time spent on individual elements of work. Since the speed of the film in filming is constant - 24 frames per second, then by frame-by-frame counting, it is possible to very accurately establish the time spent on individual elements of the labor process.

When observing a large number of objects, it is advisable to use method of lument observations, allowing to determine the value of the cost of working time, without resorting to their direct measurement. The study consists in the fact that the observer, passing through the workshop, fixes the moments of work or idle time of all workers in the workshop, determining their duration. After conducting a sequential tour of the workplaces, the observer receives information on how many people were currently busy with operational work, maintenance of workplaces, preparatory and final work, how many people were idle for some reason. In the course of monitoring, it is important to correctly determine the nature of the costs of working time and the reasons for downtime of workers. The study of the use of working time by the method of momentary observations makes it possible to obtain information that is of a probabilistic nature. To obtain more reliable information, it is necessary to record at least 20 moments for each observed employee.

Methods for studying the cost of working time - these are ways of obtaining information about the use of the working time fund, the rationality of performing a production operation in order to increase labor productivity.

The main methods for studying the cost of working time include timing, photography of the working day, photo timing, and the method of momentary observations.

Timing - this is a method of studying the cost of operational time (time to perform an operation) by observing and measuring the duration of individual elements of an operation that are repeated in the production of each product in order to determine the time standards for individual operations. It is used to design a rational composition and structure of an operation, establish their normal duration and develop, on this basis, reasonable time standards.

Working day photo - it is a way of studying the cost of working time by observing and measuring the components of these costs during the whole or part of the working day. The photograph of a working day captures and studies all the costs of working time, all its losses, while timekeeping captures and studies only the elements that make up the operation.

Workday photography goals:

• - identification of all the time spent during the working day and, on this basis, drawing up the actual balance of the employee's working day;
• - grouping of time expenses by categories of working time (main, auxiliary, etc.);
• - identifying the causes of unproductive costs of working time and, on this basis, the development of technical and organizational measures to eliminate losses and draw up a normal balance of working time;
• - obtaining initial data for the regulation of certain categories of working time (preparatory-final, main, etc.);
• - determination of the number of workers required to service individual units;
• - determination of the number of pieces of equipment serviced by one worker.

Photochronometry - combined study of operations, when both a photograph of the working day and timekeeping are carried out simultaneously in one dimension. It is used to simultaneously determine the structure of time costs and the duration of individual elements of a production operation.

Method of momentary observations - it is a statistical way of obtaining average data on the actual workload of workers and equipment. With the help of momentary observations, the loss of working time by employees, managers and specialists is also studied.

Momentary observations are carried out in the process of bypass. The observer, following a specific route, fixes in the observation sheet what is happening at a given workplace at the time of his visit. All marks are recorded on the observation sheet. The overall result of shift observation is determined by counting the number of marks (fixing moments) for each workplace. Based on the method of momentary observations for the entire group of jobs, the cost structure of all working time, the nature and proportion of time losses, the degree of equipment use, the magnitude and nature of its downtime, and the employment rates of workers can be identified.

Labor costs

The measure of labor costs for the performance of certain operations (for example, the manufacture of units of production) or the performance of a certain amount of work in specific organizational and technical conditions of production is established in the form of labor standards. Labor standards are the basis for planning and organizing production, wages, and stimulating the growth of its productivity.

Standards and unified (standard) norms are used for labor rationing. The enterprises determine and establish the norms of time, production, maintenance, number, manageability and normalized tasks. An important place in the standardized materials on labor is given to the norms of time.

Norm of time - this is the length of working time required to manufacture a unit of production or perform a certain amount of work in specific organizational and technical conditions of production. It is measured in man-hours (minutes, days).

Production rate determines the amount of work (or the number of units of production) that employees of the appropriate qualification must perform (produce) for the allotted working time (hour, shift, etc.) in specific organizational and technical conditions of production. The rate of production (Nv) is inversely proportional to the rate of time:

where H|shr - production rate, units; T - duration (actual fund) of working time, h; H - the established norm of time per unit of production, h / unit.

Service rate - this is the number of production facilities (jobs, pieces of equipment, production areas) that employees of the appropriate qualification must serve per unit of time in certain organizational and technical conditions of production. The indicator applies to workers serving automated production processes and to auxiliary workers. Service rate (Noah) is calculated by the formula

where Ntsb - service rate, sd.; £ц6 - the duration of maintenance of the production facility (unit of equipment), h.

population rate determines the number of employees of a specific professional and qualification composition required to perform a given scope of work.

Normalized task establishes the necessary assortment and volume of work to be performed by workers for a given period of time. The normalized task can be set in natural units, standard hours, standard rubles.

Controllability rate determines the number of employees (the number of structural units) that must be subordinate to one manager.

Labor standards are established for a separate operation, an interconnected group of operations, a set of works. The system of labor standards used reflects various aspects of the labor process. The norms of time and number are the norms of labor costs, the norms of output and normalized tasks - the norms of labor results. Maintenance and manageability rates characterize the size of jobs.

The study of the cost of working time is of great importance, since, based on the information obtained as a result, most of the tasks related to the organization of labor and its regulation are solved.

Research is carried out in order to determine the structure of operations, the cost of working time, rationalize methods and methods of work, identify the reasons for non-fulfillment of norms, irrational costs and loss of working time, obtain data on factors affecting the time of performing elements of operations, develop regulatory materials, assess the quality of norms and regulations, as well as for many other tasks.

The study of the labor process involves the analysis of all its characteristics that affect labor costs and the efficiency of the use of production resources. The technological parameters of the equipment, its compliance with ergonomic requirements, working conditions, applied technology, organization and maintenance of each workplace, professional qualification, psychophysiological, social characteristics of workers and other factors are studied. Methods for obtaining and processing information are selected based on the objectives of the study. Optimal is the minimum of total costs associated with obtaining the necessary information and its subsequent use.

Of greatest importance is the solution of two problems related to the study of labor processes. The first is related to the determination of the actual time spent on the execution of elements of operations. The second - with the establishment of the structure of time spent during the work shift or part of it.

Determination of the duration of the elements of the operation is necessary for the development of time standards, the choice of the most rational methods of work. Most of the tasks associated with the design of the organization of labor and its regulation are solved on the basis of information obtained as a result of research on labor processes.

The study of the labor process involves the analysis of all its characteristics that affect labor costs and the efficiency of the use of production resources. The parameters of the equipment, its compliance with the manufactured products and ergonomic requirements are studied; professional qualification, psychophysiological and social characteristics of employees; working conditions, applied technologies, organization of the workplace, its maintenance. Based on the objectives of the study, methods for obtaining and processing information are selected.

In the organization of labor, two tasks related to the study of labor processes are of the greatest importance:

determination of the actual time spent on the performance of elements of operations (labor methods, movements, actions);

Establishing the structure of time spent throughout the working day.

Determination of the duration of the execution of elements of operations is necessary for the development of time standards, the choice of the most rational methods of work, the establishment of the components of time standards, and the analysis of the quality of norms and standards. Data on the structure of working time costs are used in the development of standards for the maintenance of the workplace and the preparatory-final time, the assessment of the efficiency of the use of working time, and the analysis of the existing labor organization.

The study of labor processes should be carried out taking into account the fact that the time spent on performing an operation depends on many organizational, technical and psychophysiological factors, which, as a rule, cannot be fully controlled. For example, measuring the duration of the same element of an operation under the same conditions gives a number of causes, which in most cases do not coincide with each other, i.e. the results will form a variational series. To obtain the necessary information at minimal cost, it is very important to justify the number of observations.

Methods for studying labor processes can be classified according to: the purpose of the study, the number of objects observed, the method of observation, etc.

In accordance with the purpose of the study, the following methods are distinguished: photography of working time, timing, photo timing.

Timing- this is the study and measurement of individual, cyclically repeating elements of the operation by observation.

Timing is carried out for the following purposes:

Establishment of time limits for the operation;

Verification and clarification of applicable standards;

Studying the methods and techniques of advanced workers;

Obtaining initial data for the development of time standards.

It is carried out, as a rule, at works that are characterized by frequent repetition and constancy of the degree of influence of factors on the time of their execution. The main task of timing is to identify factors that affect the duration of each element of the operation under study in order to design its rational structure as a whole and the normal duration of its individual elements. The object of study is a production operation or its elements performed by a worker or group at a particular workplace.

Although the duration of operations studied in the course of timing is not theoretically limited by limit values, it is not advisable to use it to observe an operation of a long duration. Timing is divided into individual and group (brigade) depending on the number of observed workers.

Via individual timing determine the time spent by individual performers, which allows you to study the work with the maximum degree of detail. Chronometric observations of all varieties are carried out only by the method of direct measurements of time.

At group timing one observer studies the work of a group of workers performing one production operation. It is used to study the composition of the group and the rational distribution of work among the workers in it. To achieve greater accuracy, two timekeepers are set up to observe independently of each other, and at the end of the work, the data obtained by each of the observers are verified.

Timing can be continuous (according to the current time), selective and cyclic. When conducting chronometric observations on the current time, all elements of the work are examined in the order of their execution. Selective timing is used to study individual elements of operations, regardless of their sequence. In cases where it is difficult to measure with sufficient accuracy the time spent on individual elements of an operation that have a short duration (3-5 s), cyclic timing is used. It consists in the fact that sequential techniques are combined into groups with different composition of the studied elements. Based on the measurements of the duration of the execution of groups of elements, the duration of each element of the operation included in it is determined.

When timing is very widely used digital recording. In some cases, the graphic record is supplemented with digital and index marks. During the manifestation of observations in order to identify the best, as well as unnecessary actions and movements, photography and filming are used.

Timekeeping in some cases can be carried out with the help of stopwatches and then the results are counted visually according to the indications of the arrow and entered into the observation card. In other cases, graphic devices such as chronographs and special photographic equipment are used. In this case, the observer is freed from recording the time readings, since the chronograph shows the total time for each element of the operation, the total number of measurements and gives a chronogram, which fixes the duration of individual costs and their sequence.

Timekeeping should be carried out 50-60 minutes after the start of work, at the end of the workability period. It is also recommended to take measurements 1.5-2.0 hours before the end of work. Compliance with these conditions makes it possible to more accurately determine the labor costs of the worker and the group, since the observation covers shift periods with an average pace of work, which are determined by the curve of changes in working capacity. Observations on the first and last day of the working week should also be avoided.

If the observation is carried out to develop a production rate, then average workers are selected as the object of observation. Workers who do not comply with current standards are not taken into account.

The best object for observation are workers who have a level of compliance with the norms close to the arithmetic mean for the organization.

The disadvantage of this technique is the rather low accuracy of the results; therefore, it is often used for small-scale or single-piece production, where, with reduced requirements for the accuracy of the norms, the simplicity of their development is necessary.

When determining the time of chronometric observations, it is necessary to take into account changes not only in the pace of work of the same worker in connection with workability and fatigue, but also in the organizational and technical conditions of the production process.

The choice of the object of observation during timing is determined by the purpose of the study. To study and generalize the best experience, observations are made for the best employees. To perform and eliminate the causes of poor performance, observations of lagging workers are analyzed.

In stable production, it is expedient to select workers with an average pace of work based on data from preliminary momentary observations.

The main stage of timing is the analysis of the results, which includes identifying unnecessary movements and actions, assessing the possibility of their combination and reducing the duration.

Working time photo- a type of study of working time by observation and measurement of all costs without exception throughout the working day or a separate part of it.

Working time photography is used for various purposes:

to determine the rationality of using working time, identifying losses of working time for various reasons and developing measures to eliminate such losses;

to study and generalize advanced production experience in the distribution of working time and the establishment of a more rational balance of working time;

to compare the actual workload of the worker with his possible workload when carrying out organizational and technical measures.

If the photograph of working time is used to develop time norms, then the objects of observation are jobs with good labor organization that excludes time losses, and workers who comply with the norms. If a photograph is used to analyze the cost structure of working time, then the workplace is analyzed according to its initial state, no additional measures to improve work are taken before taking a photograph.

When taking photographs of working time, the following conditions must be met:

serviceability of machines, machine tools and equipment;

the required quality of materials and tools necessary to perform the work and their timely submission;

timely supply of electricity, gas and other sources of energy supply;

timely provision of technical documentation;

healthy and safe working conditions (observance of norms and rules of labor protection, necessary lighting, heating and ventilation, absence of vibrations).

The main stages are: preparing a photograph, conducting a PDF, processing the observation results, analyzing and developing optimization measures.

At the preparatory stage, the purpose of the photograph is determined and the object of observation is selected. This is followed by the study of the technological process, the organization of the workplace, the procedure for its maintenance, the division of labor between groups of workers.

Photography of working time can be used by two methods: direct measurements of time and momentary observations, each method has a number of pluses and minuses (Table 1).

Widespread individual photo working time, in which the object of observation is one employee at a particular workplace. This observation records all the performer's actions and breaks in the order in which they actually occur.

Table 1

Comparative characteristics of methods of direct measurements and momentary observations

Advantages	disadvantages
Method of direct measurements
a detailed study of the labor process and the use of equipment; high reliability of data; establishment of the actual costs of working time for the entire period of observation; obtaining information about the successive elements of labor; the opportunity to involve employees in research.	observations are long and laborious; data processing is quite complex; observation time is limited, breaks are unacceptable; the reliability of the results is affected by the constant presence of observers; one observer is not able to not be able to provide high-quality observation.
Method of instant observations
one researcher can observe an almost unlimited number of objects; the reliability of the observation will not suffer if it is interrupted; there is no psychological impact on the object of observation; labor intensity is 5-10 times less than when measuring.	the result is the averaged data; there is no way to directly record the causes of downtime and losses; there is no data on the sequence of performing techniques and operations.

In the process of analysis, the actual costs of the preparatory and final time are compared with the standards. Required time for rest and personal needs are established on the basis of industry regulations for these working conditions.

The methodology for conducting group, route and other types of photography of working time is basically similar to individual photography. Each method is appropriate in a number of situations (Table 2).

table 2

Comparative characteristics of the varieties of photography of working time in the study of the cost of working time

Variety of FRV	Appropriateness of application	Advantages	disadvantages
Self-photograph of working time	1) during the initial study of the organization of labor; 2) while simultaneously studying the organization of labor and the structure of the cost of working time; 3) with a small scale of research	1) economical; 2) low labor intensity of data collection.	1) difficulty in grouping data; 2) insufficient accuracy of the results; 3) does not reveal the total loss of time
Individual photo of working time	1) subject to a preliminary study of the content of labor; 2) with a significant scope of research	1) easy; 2) economical; 3) convenient for data processing	1) insufficient accuracy of the results; 2) does not reveal the total loss of time
Group photo of working time	1) subject to a preliminary study of the content of labor	1) high accuracy of results; 2) performs a control function.	1) Not economical; 2) high labor intensity; 3) Unsatisfactory impact on workers
Method of instant observations	1) as a selective method in mass studies; 2) as a method of monitoring results.	1) the accuracy of the results; 2) economy	requires highly qualified observers

The choice of a particular method depends on the nature of the processes being studied, the goal of the study, the effort expended, and the time budget. All types of measurements and observations will help to identify irrational costs and loss of working time, to establish their causes.

When organizing labor, two tasks related to the study of labor processes are of the greatest importance. First - determination of the actual time spent on the performance of elements of operations (labor movements, actions, techniques, etc.). Second - Establishing the structure of time spent during the work shift or part of it.

Determination of the duration of the execution of elements of operations is necessary for the development of time standards, the choice of the most rational methods of work, the establishment of the components of time standards, and the analysis of the quality of norms and standards. Data on the structure of working time costs are used in the development of standards for the maintenance of the workplace and the preparatory-final time, the assessment of the efficiency of the use of working time, and the analysis of the existing organization of labor and production at the enterprise.

The study of labor processes should be carried out taking into account the fact that the time spent on performing an element of an operation or a certain type of work depends on a variety of organizational, technical and psychophysiological factors that are usually not fully controllable. In particular, the measurement of the duration of the same element of the operation under the same conditions gives a number of values ​​that in most cases do not coincide with each other, i.e. the results of this measurement will constitute a variation series. Therefore, in order to obtain reliable conclusions about the duration of the elements of operations and the structure of working time costs, such methods of organizing and processing observations should be used that allow taking into account the probabilistic nature of the processes under study.

The classification of methods for studying the costs of working time is presented in table 1.

Table 1 - Classification of methods for studying the cost of working time

Classification sign	Research method
Purpose of the study	- photograph of working hours; - timing; - photo timing
Number of observed objects	- individual; - group; - route
Research form	- direct measurements of time; - method of momentary observations
Data Commit Form	- continuous, continuous observation; - selective observation; - cyclic observation
Type of observation	- visual; - using automatic metering devices
Observer	- an outside observer; - performer himself
Entry form	- digital; - index; - graphic; - photography, filming

As we see, in accordance with the purpose of the study, the following research methods are distinguished Key words: timing, photography of working time, photo timing. We will consider them in more detail.

Timing - this is a method of studying the cost of operational time by observing and measuring the duration of individual elements of the operation that are repeated in the production of each product. Chronometric observations make it possible to identify reserves associated with the time of performing operational work.

Depending on the tasks of the study and the characteristics of labor processes, there are various methods for conducting timing, photography of working time, photo timing.

Timing can be continuous (according to the current time), selective and cyclic. When conducting chronometric observations on the current time, all elements of the work are examined in the order of their execution. Selective timing is used to study individual elements of operations, regardless of their sequence.

In cases where it is difficult to accurately measure the time spent on elements of an operation that have a short duration (from 3 to 5 seconds), cyclic timing is used when successive techniques are combined into groups with a different composition of the studied elements. Based on the measurements of the duration of these groups, the duration of each element of the operation included in them is determined.

The main stages of timing are :

Preparation for timing (selection of objects of observation, division of the operation into elements, establishment of fixing points, determination of the number of observations, filling out documentation);

Observation (chronometric observations must be carried out twice during the working shift: the first - approximately 1 hour after the start of work, the second - 1.5-2 hours before the end of work with the completion of observation no later than half an hour before the end of the shift);

Processing and analysis of the obtained values ​​of the time sequence (elimination of erroneous measurements, determination of the stability coefficient of the time series and comparison with the normative value, determination of the average duration for each element of the operation as the ratio of the sum of the duration values ​​of the elements of the stable time series to the number of qualitative observations in the time series);

Analysis of the rationality of the production process (reveals the possibility of eliminating inefficient elements of the execution of operations, overlapping with machine time of part of the work performed manually);

Establishment of the norm of operational time by summing up the duration of all elements.

An important means of studying the organization of labor and production is photograph of working time (FW) . There are many types of PDFs - individual, group, self-photos, photographs of equipment in use, photographs of the production process.

When conducting an individual PDF, all, without exception, the costs of working time are measured and recorded, and especially carefully - the loss of time for various reasons. An individual photograph of working time is carried out in order to :

Identification of losses of working time, establishment of their causes and development of measures to eliminate and improve the organization of labor and production;
- studying the experience of workers who achieve the best results of labor and its dissemination;
- establishment of standards for maintenance of equipment and norms for the number of workers;
- development of norms for preparatory and final time, time for servicing the workplace and regulated breaks;
- obtaining initial data to establish the norms of operational time for manual work in single and small-scale production;
- identification of the reasons for non-compliance with the norms.

The main stages of working time photography are : preparation, implementation, processing of observation results, their analysis and development of measures to improve the use of working time.

In preparation for the observation, it is necessary to study the technological process, the organization of the workplace, the procedure for its maintenance, the division and cooperation of labor between groups of workers. A photograph for the purpose of studying the loss of working time is performed to study the organization of labor for which the standards are calculated.

When taking a direct photograph of working time in the observation sheet (table 2) throughout the whole shift (or part of it), all the costs of working time are continuously recorded without exception.

Based on the data obtained, a summary of the time spent by workers is compiled (table 3). Next, the results of the observations are analyzed. At the same time, irrational costs and loss of working time are determined. Their reasons are established.

In the process of analysis, the actual costs of preparatory and final time, organizational and maintenance time are compared with the normative ones, which are determined on the basis of designing the most efficient system for servicing workplaces.

The required time for rest and personal needs per shift is set on the basis of industry standards for these working conditions and the design of a rational mode of work and rest. After that, the actual and projected (normative) balances of the costs of working time are compiled.

When compiling the regulatory balance, all losses and waste of working time are excluded, due to this, operational time increases . Comparison of the actual and normative (rational) balances makes it possible to determine the possible increase in labor productivity for each proposal aimed at eliminating losses and unproductive costs of working time:

K1 \u003d [Tnab - (Tpz n + Top n + Tto n + To n)]: Tnab × 100 ; (1)

K2 \u003d (Tnab - Trats): Tnab × 100 , (2)

where K1 - coefficient of possible compaction of the working day,%;
Tnab – observation time during the working day;
Tpz n - normalized preparatory and final time;
Top n - normalized operational time;
Tto n – normalized time for maintenance;
Tone - normalized time for rest and personal needs;
Tratz - rational time;
K2 - coefficient of possible increase in labor productivity, %.

Group photo of working time carried out in cases where work is performed by a group or team (link) of workers. If the number of workers in the group does not exceed three people and they are in the field of view of the observer, then the method of direct time measurements is used. The procedure for conducting observations is the same as for individual photography, but the recording of time spent and their summary is carried out for each worker. As a result of the analysis, the structure of the time fund and the efficiency of the division of labor in the link (team) are established.

When the number of workers is more than three, the observer usually does not have time to fix the start and end times of all actions performed by each worker. In these cases, the PDF is carried out by the method of momentary observations with the fixation of the states of workers and equipment at regular or randomly selected time intervals.

Method of instant observations is based on the use of the theory of probability and lies in the fact that during the observation it is not the time spent that is recorded, but the number of repetitions related to each category of working time costs. To do this, the observer determines: firstly, the volume of observations - the required number of moments that, with the desired degree of probability, can characterize the structure of the cost of working time; secondly, the route of bypassing workplaces and unequal time intervals for the start of bypasses.

The detour route and fix points (places of routes where the observer makes marks on the observation list) are set in advance. The observer, having come to the fixing point, notes what is happening at the workplace at the moment. After the completion of all rounds for each type of cost, the number of moments in which these costs are recorded and their share in the total number of observed moments are calculated.

The method of instantaneous observations has a number of significant advantages over the method of direct time measurements. . The main ones are as follows.

With the help of momentary observations, it is possible to analyze the structure of working time for almost any number of observed objects. This is important, since the determination of the time spent by one or two or three workers, as a rule, does not have significant economic significance. The cost of taking a photograph will be justified if, on the basis of its results, it is possible to improve the use of the working time of a significant group of objects of observation.

In addition, this method provides a much greater reliability of the time cost structure, since, unlike the method of direct measurements, when the observer is constantly in close proximity to the observed workers, during momentary observations, the states of the objects of observation can be fixed in such a way that it will not have much effect. any noticeable psychological impact on workers.

For those who study the structure of time, making momentary observations is also associated with less mental and physical stress. The results of momentary observations will not become less reliable if the observations are interrupted and then continued after several hours or shifts. As experience shows, with momentary observations, the time spent by observers is 5-10 times less than with direct measurements of time.

self photography working day is spent by the employee himself. The purpose of such monitoring is to identify the loss of working time through no fault of the employee.

Photograph of equipment use time carried out by the same methods as the photograph of the working day of workers. Its purpose is to identify time reserves for improving the use of equipment, setting standards for its performance and maintenance.

So, timing is used to analyze the methods of labor and determine the duration of repetitive elements of operations, photography of working time (FRV) is used to establish the structure of its costs throughout the work shift or part of it, photo timing is used to simultaneously determine the structure of time costs and the duration of individual elements of the production operation.

Checking the production capabilities of each workplace, studying the experience and the most advanced labor methods, identifying intra-shift losses and obtaining the necessary materials for the development of standards and norms requires systematic monitoring and analysis of working time costs.

The choice of specific methods for studying working time largely depends on:

• the content of the production process itself (mechanical or physico-chemical);
• the degree of mechanization of the worker's labor;
• type of production;
• forms of labor organization at the workplace (individual, brigade, multi-machine);
• the frequency of repetition and the duration of the cycle of the production process (processes are cyclic, periodic and continuous).

The variety of production processes and forms of labor organization, the different content and repeatability of the expenditure of working time, as well as the goals of their study, necessitate the use of unequal methods and techniques of observation, different equipment. Methods of study and varieties of monitoring the cost of working time can be classified according to the following criteria (Table 1).

The method of continuous (continuous) measurements - the most common and universal - used in all production processes with various forms of labor organization and types of study of working time (timing, photography); allows you to get the most complete, detailed and accurate idea not only of the average, but also of the actual costs and losses of working time in terms of their content, magnitude and sequence of execution.

Table 1

Classification of methods for studying the cost of working time

Classification sign	Variety
By observation method	Measurements: solid; selective; periodic; cyclic; momentary observations
	Timing. Photo (working day, equipment usage, production process)
By object of observation	Individual. Group (brigade). Route. multi-machine
According to the form of recording the results of observations	Digital. Index. Graphic. Oscillographic. Combined. Photo and filming
By way of observation	Visually. With the help of appliances. self photography

Method of periodic observations, used for group and route photography, allows you to: obtain data on the number of cases of occurrence of certain costs, loss of working time or equipment downtime. Supervision is carried out simultaneously over the work of a large number of workers or pieces of equipment. Simultaneous coverage is up to 20 objects, sometimes one person can monitor 70 workers.

Sampling method It is mainly used for timekeeping, when individual elements of an operation are studied. It is most widely used in the study of auxiliary time techniques in the conditions of a multi-machine organization of labor, instrumental processes.

Cycle measurement method - a kind of selective observation process - it is used only for timing, when it is necessary to measure the execution time of techniques (actions or movements) with a very short duration, and therefore it is impossible to accurately fix the time of their execution using conventional methods of observation (using stopwatches). Here, time measurements are made by groups of individual techniques.

Method of instant observations the cost of loss of working time and use of equipment over time is based on probability theory and is a kind of sampling method. In order for the results of observations to reflect the actual use of working time, the following conditions must be observed:

• observations of certain expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible;
• the number of observations (sample size) should be large enough to reliably characterize the observed phenomenon as a whole.

These conditions are ensured if, when determining the number of observations, the rules of statistics for sample surveys are applied. The volume of observations is determined by the formula:

where: M - sample size (number of measurements per unit of observation to be recorded) or number of momentary observations, tabular values;

TO - the utilization rate of working time. The value of this coefficient is taken from the data of earlier observations or is taken approximately;

(1 - TO) - the share of breaks or downtime, i.e. the probability of finding a worker or machine inactive; R - the permissible value of the relative error of the results of observation, which in the practice of studying working hours and the use of equipment in time is taken within 3-10% (in the formula it is put down in fractions of a unit - 0.03-0.1); a is the coefficient associated with reliability, i.e. with the confidence probability of non-exit of the observation error R beyond the established limits.

Usually, in the practice of photography of working time, it is enough to limit oneself to the probability of one or another event within 0.84-0.95, i.e. 84-95 cases out of 100, the error will not go beyond the acceptable range. With a further increase in reliability, the number of observations will increase dramatically. Therefore, sometimes it is advisable to go for some reduction in the accuracy of the results of observations.

Under the conditions of a stable technological process and multiple repetition of the elements of the cost of working time, it is possible to take a = 1.4, which corresponds to a confidence probability of 0.84. With the sample size obtained with such a, the results will be quite acceptable. They are determined by the formula:

In conditions of an unstable production process (single and small-scale production), the calculation is carried out according to the following formula:

More observations are made in conditions of less sustainable production, less - in production with greater process stability.

According to the object of observation, the following methods are distinguished:

• 1) individual if supervision is carried out over the work of one worker;
• 2) group - the work of several workers or machines is studied;
• 3) brigade- supervision is carried out over a team of workers engaged in the performance of technologically related work at one workplace;
• 4) multi-station - monitoring the work of one worker engaged in the maintenance of several machines;
• 5) route - observation is carried out on the work of a worker moving along a certain route, or on the work of several workers located far from each other, which forces the observer to bypass the studied workplaces along a predetermined route.

According to the method of fixing the cost of working time, methods can be distinguished when observations are made by an observer:

• visually using the simplest time devices (clocks, stopwatches);
• with the help of instruments, i.e. fixing the beginning and end of individual elements of the cost of working time with devices of various types;
• fixing the cost of working time by the workers themselves (self-photography).

Recording of the results of observations can be carried out with the help of numbers, indices, graphically, photography and filming, oscillographic and combined recording.

The main types of studying the cost of working time are timing, photography and photo timing. Their most common varieties are given in Table. 2.

Studying the use of working time using these methods consists of the following steps:

• preparation for observation;
• its implementation in accordance with the chosen type;
• processing results;
• analysis of the received data and design of more rational labor processes.

table 2

Varieties of photography and timekeeping

	Method observations	An object observations	Results Recording Form	Way observations
The photo	Solid (continuous)	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Group	Index	With the help of appliances
	Periodic	Brigade	Graphic
	Selective	route	Combined	self photography
	Moment	multi-machine
Timing	Solid	Individual	Digital	Visual
		Brigade	Graphic	With the help of appliances
	Selective	multi-machine	and filming
	Cyclic			Oscilloscope recording, combined

Photo of working time. Under the photograph of working time (day) is understood the type of study of working time by observing and measuring all costs without exception during the working day or a separate part of it.

The main objectives of photography:

• identifying losses of working time, establishing their causes and developing measures to improve the organization of labor by eliminating losses and wasted time;
• obtaining initial data for the development of standards for preparatory and final time, time for rest and personal needs, service standards;
• determining the reasons for non-compliance with the norms by workers, studying the best experience, determining the possibility of combining professions and multi-machine maintenance;
• obtaining source materials in order to establish the most rational organization of workplaces and their maintenance. Consider the methodology for taking photographs of working time

on the example of an individual photograph of a working day.

Regardless of the types of photography, the methodology for its implementation includes the following stages: preparatory, observation, processing of observation results, analysis of observation results.

At the preparatory stage, the purpose of photography is determined (detection of loss of working time, development of standards, etc.) and the object of observation is selected in accordance with the goal.

After determining the purpose and object of observation, one should carefully study the working conditions at the workplace, choose a place from which it is convenient to observe the worker without disturbing him, and inform him about the purpose of photography.

On the front side of the observation sheet (photocard), during the period of preparation for taking a photograph, detailed information about the worker, equipment, work performed, organization and maintenance of the workplace, etc. is recorded. . sharply expressed moments of the beginning and end of the operation or category of labor costs in accordance with their classification.

Monitoring consists in a consistent and detailed record in the observation sheet of everything that happens at the workplace. Photographing is carried out from the moment the work begins, so the observer must arrive at the workplace 10-15 minutes before the start of work. The entry is made in text, index or graphically on a time scale (Table 3). The column "Current time" records the end time of the observed time categories.

Table 3

Observation sheet of individual photo of working time

(fragment)

Processing of the results of observation begins with the calculation of the duration of the individual elements of the cost of time. To do this, the value of the previous element of work is subtracted from the indicators of the current time. For example, for the first element: 7 hours 05 minutes. - 7 h. 00 min. = 5 min. etc.

Then, in accordance with the developed indexation of the time spent in the form of a photo card, the corresponding indices are put down for each action of the worker. All elements of work that have the same index are combined into groups and a summary of the costs of the same name is compiled, which characterizes the actual time spent on work (Table 4).

An analysis of the results of observations makes it possible to establish whether all the expenditures of working time are necessary and rational under the existing organization of labor, what are the losses of working time, and what measures must be taken in order to further increase labor productivity. The developed activities are included in the plans with the indication of the performers and the timing of implementation.

Table 4

Form of a summary card of an individual photograph of working time

(conditional example)

working time	Name of time spent	Index	Total continue validity costs,	Normalized Duration costs, min.	Eliminate expenses,
preparatory and final, T p,	Receipt and delivery of an order, drawing
	Industrial briefing
	Equipment setup Total: T pz, min.
	Total: Г„, min.
Operating time, T op

Based on the data obtained, the actual and standard balances of working time are compiled.

An example of the actual balance of working time is presented in Table. five.

Based on the data of the actual and standard balances of the worker, the following indicators are calculated.

Shift time utilization ratio (K Spanish):

where: T pz - preparatory-final time;

T op - operational time;

T obs- time of service of the workplace;

T ex - time for rest and personal needs is taken into account within the standard;

T cm - duration of the work shift.

Table 5

Actual working time balance

(conditional example)

Time spent	Duration		Designation
Preparatory and final work
Operational work
Including: main
auxiliary
Workplace maintenance
Rest and personal needs
Downtime due to organizational and technical reasons
Loss of working time due to violations of labor discipline
Total balance sheet:

(K psh):

where: T psh - time of interruptions caused by violations of the normal course of the process.

The coefficient of loss of working time due to violation of labor discipline (K ntd):

where: T ntd- Time of breaks due to violation of labor discipline.

The percentage of possible increase in labor productivity, subject to the elimination of direct losses of working time (P Fri):

Projected (standard costs) are taken from time standards or from the results of a photograph of the best employee's working day. If there is no such data, then the avoidable losses and irrational costs of working time are deducted from the actual costs. When compiling the normative balance of working time, no time is provided for breaks due to violations of the normal technological process, and breaks associated with violations of labor discipline. All savings in these categories of working time costs are considered a reserve for increasing operational time.

To calculate the standard balance of working time, the time standards for preparatory and final operations, maintenance of the workplace, rest and personal needs approved for this type of work are used. The operational time is determined, the normative ( T op n):

where: H obs And H osh - respectively, the time standards for servicing the workplace and for rest and personal needs as a percentage of the operational time.

In our example, we conditionally assume that H obs = 6%, N ex = 5%, T pz= 15 min., then

Then, based on this value, the duration of the standard time for servicing the workplace and for personal needs is determined.

All standard costs must be the duration of the working day in minutes.

The normative balance of working time is presented in Table. 6.

Table 6

Normative balance of working hours

(conditional example)

The maximum possible increase in labor productivity while eliminating all losses and unnecessary costs of working time (L pt) calculated by the formula:

where: T opf - actual operating time.

Based on the information received, specific organizational and technical measures are developed aimed at eliminating the causes that cause losses and unnecessary costs of working time. When developing these measures, it is necessary to provide for: the specific content of the measures, the place and timing of their implementation, the responsible executors, the expected reduction in the loss of working time, the change in the current and total amount of one-time (capital) costs, if necessary.

Measures must be economically justified. For this, their expected conditionally annual economic efficiency is calculated.

The methodology for conducting group, route and other types of photography of working time is basically similar to individual photography.

Continuous observation is laborious and requires a large number of observers. This mostly applies to individual photography where one person is watching one worker. The possibilities of group and team photography are somewhat wider. The number of observed workers per one observer in these cases is 15-20 people. In the context of the dynamic development of production, such coverage of workers does not meet modern requirements. All this requires the improvement of methods for studying working time.

The advantages of photography based on the method of momentary observations: simplicity, low labor intensity, the ability to study a large group of workers or equipment by one observer.

The disadvantages include obtaining averaged data on the time spent and an insufficiently complete picture of the causes of time losses. Using the method of momentary observations, the tasks of determining the degree of use of working time and equipment loading, studying the cost structure and establishing the specific weight and absolute values ​​of individual elements of working time costs are solved.

In contrast to the method discussed above, when carrying out momentary observations continuous registration of individual elements of the cost of working time is replaced by a selective one. Observations with this method are carried out as if by chance, so their number should be sufficient to get a reliable idea of ​​the state of the use of working time.

The method of momentary observations includes several stages.

At the preparatory stage, the goal is determined and the objects of observation are selected, the required number of detours is calculated, the observation route and the detour schedule are drawn up.

Number of rounds ( K obx) is determined by dividing the total number of observations ( M) by the number of people or pieces of equipment to be examined ( N).

The duration of one bypass is determined either by direct measurements or by calculation based on tables of microelement standards, where it is given that one step (600 mm) in time (/) takes 0.01 min.

The observation route must be chosen so that during it it would be possible to see all the observed workers or equipment in turn. It should be as short as possible and exclude idle transitions if possible.

When defining it, it is necessary to set fixing points, i.e. those places along the route of the observer, where the recording of what is happening at the workplace will be made. To establish the duration of the observations, a trial round is made along the planned route. Knowing this time and the number of rounds, determine the total time required for the observation. The main requirement of momentary observations is that the fixation of certain types of expenditures of working time should be random and equally possible. In this regard, it is very important to choose the right time for observations.

If it is known, for example, that the round trip time is 10 minutes, i.e. 6 rounds can be made in an hour, and if these 6 rounds are made in a row, they will be repeated in a predetermined sequence every 10 minutes, which deprives the observation of the element of chance.

The observation considered in the example will rather refer to continuous rather than selective. Therefore, it is assumed in advance that 1-3 rounds should be carried out in one hour.

Then determine the start time of the bypass. To do this, it is recommended to use a table of random numbers compiled by lottery.

Having written out any of the columns of the table of random numbers (for example, 3, 4, 7, 8, 0, 1, 9), the first number is taken as the start time of the round (in our example, the third minute of the shift). The end time of the round is determined by summing the start time of the round and the duration of one round (7): 3 + T. To find the start time of the second round, a new random number is added to the end time of the first round (3 + T+ 4), etc. In this case, the bypass route remains constant.

All this complicates the preparation for momentary observations. Therefore, it is advisable to use simpler methods of research.

Thus, Polish scientists propose to carry out continuous detours along a permanent route. In connection with the loss of randomness with a rigid alternation of the moments of observation, the possibility of error in the results of the sample increases. In order to reduce it, a calculated number of observations is proposed ( M) multiply by the correction factor C according to the formula:

The correction factor C depending on the time interval between observations has the following values ​​(Table 7).

Correction factor values ​​for correcting the required number of moment observations

Table 7

Thus, the observance of the condition that the number of rounds in each hour of work is the same and the start times of rounds in the same hours of work on different days of observation do not coincide, provides the same possibility of observing all elements of the costs of working time. This condition is especially important to observe in those areas of production where the synchronism of operations takes place, the rhythm and tact of work are determined.

In production, where the relationship and interdependence between jobs does not obey a certain rhythm and tact and is random (for example, repair, mechanical, foundry and other shops), you can do without a table of the start of observation (bypasses). In this case, the observer can arbitrarily choose the start time of the round within a given hour, making only the intended number of rounds per hour per shift.

The observation technique is very simple. Sequentially moving from one workplace to another, the observer at each fixation point notes what he sees, without recording, at what point in time this state was noted and how long it lasted. This requires compliance with some rules:

• 1) each tour must begin exactly at the appointed time, determined by the tour schedule;
• 2) the detour must be carried out along the route with a uniform step, without accelerating or slowing down the walk;
• 3) the observer must record what is happening at the workplace when he is at the fixing point for these workers, and not from another place;
• 4) the volume of observations (the number of rounds) provided for per unit of time (hour, shift) should be strictly observed.

Having completed the entire volume of observations, the received data are processed, which begins with counting the number of moments for each observed element. Then the specific gravity (in percent) of each element is determined. Based on these data, the actual balance of working hours is compiled. Then, by percentage, taking them from the duration of the shift, a balance of time in minutes is drawn up.

Example. During the observation period, 200 man-moments were recorded, including by elements: main work -120 moments or (120: 200) x 100 = 60%: auxiliary work - 20 moments or (20: 200) x 100 = 10%, etc. .P.

After processing the received materials, the actual error of the results obtained is determined. If it turns out to be higher than the specified one, then an additional number of rounds should be carried out in accordance with the adjusted volume of observations, and then the processing of new data.

Self-photography method: the employee himself during a certain time fixes breaks in work, indicates their causes and proposes measures to eliminate them.

The main advantage of the self-photography of the working day (SFRD) method over other methods of studying the use of working time is that it allows you to get the richest variety of concrete proposals from employees to eliminate the causes of intra-shift downtime and improve labor organization.

The success of self-photography depends mainly on proper preparation for it. It is necessary to print forms of self-photography in advance, familiarize employees with the purpose of its implementation, as well as with the methods of keeping records on the observation sheet.

To find the desired value ( R) the formula is used:

where: TO- the actual workload obtained by processing the observation results.

The effectiveness and even the very possibility of mass self-photography is directly dependent on the level of general education and professional training of workers. Self-photography is an effective form of creative initiative of workers aimed at increasing labor productivity.

Self-photography of the working day (SFRD) plays an important role in solving issues of improving the organization and standardization of the work of employees.

The disadvantage of this method is that it fixes the loss of working time due to organizational and technical reasons, i.e. losses beyond the control of the worker.

On the day of the self-photography, there are usually no losses of working time due to the fault of the employee or the employee does not record them. In addition, correctly noting the cause of downtime, the employee cannot always determine how best to eliminate them.

However, despite the shortcomings noted, self-photography is a fairly effective and highly economical means of establishing the actual loss of working time. The mass coverage of workers by this method makes it possible to obtain reliable, representative material to substantiate conclusions about improving the organization of labor and production.

Self-photography can be done in two ways:

• 1) continuous monitoring is carried out by the employee in the form of a diary, in which he consistently records the work performed and the current completion time of each of them;
• 2) each employee is issued an observation sheet, in which a list of his main functions is pre-written. The employee must determine the actual time spent on each function and put their value on the observation sheet. If additional functions arise that are not provided for in the observation sheet, they should also be reflected in it. In order to comprehensively study and analyze the data obtained and, on this basis, improve the organization of labor, it is advisable to combine all types of photographs (working time, equipment use time, production process).

At the enterprises of the country, considerable experience has been accumulated in the use of various photographs of working time, and there is an extensive methodological literature. For a comprehensive identification of production reserves, it is important to conduct comprehensive and targeted photographs of working time. So, when taking a photograph of the production process, the costs of the working time of one or a group of workers, the use of equipment over time and the actual modes of its operation are simultaneously studied.

When conducting complex photography, different in content and purpose, but interconnected labor processes can be studied. For example, the study of the labor processes of the main and serving workers makes it possible to comprehensively address the issues of improving the organization of labor.

Target photographs are widely used in production. Most often they are used to identify shortcomings in the preparation of production, maintenance of jobs and labor discipline. So, when taking a photograph of the beginning and end of the shift, the observer captures the “start of work”, “end of work”, “leaving the workplace”. The duration of observation is only 30-60 minutes, but the data obtained allow us to develop a set of measures aimed at strengthening labor discipline.

An important place in the methodology for taking photographs of working time is occupied by the question of the required number of repeated observations - measurements. When taking photographs of a working day using the method of momentary observations, the calculation of the required number of observations is not difficult. However, in relation to other types of photographs (continuous and selective), the recommendations are of a general nature. So, according to the methodology of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of observations is limited to five. In cases where small requirements are imposed on the accuracy of the observation results, they can be less than five.

If a photograph of working time is taken for categories of industrial and production personnel performing the same functions daily, at least three observations must be made within a month - at the beginning, middle and end of the month.

For employees whose functions are heterogeneous and do not repeat daily, self-photography is recommended for a month. The data obtained during this time reliably characterize the composition of the functions of employees, the cost structure of their working time.

Of practical interest is the determination of the required number of photographs of working time based on the variability of the studied costs of working time and the probability of obtaining observation results within the established error (Table 8).

As can be seen, with a slight fluctuation of the studied costs of working time, it is necessary to conduct observations for at least 6-8 days. The most reliable data will be obtained if photography is taken three days a week (12 times a month).

Table 9

The time interval between rounds, taken with group photos of the working day (FRD)

TIMELINE AND ITS VARIETIES

ITiming- this is the study of operations by observing and studying the costs of working time for the implementation of individual, repeatedly repeated with the manufacture of each unit of production, elements of the operation.

As a rule, these are elements of operational time, mainly manual, preparatory-final and maintenance time of the workplace.

With timekeeping:

• establish time standards for individual operations in the conditions of mass and large-scale production and develop time standards;
• identify and study the best methods and techniques of work;
• study the reasons for non-compliance with established standards and clarify them;
• distribute the work among the workers of the brigade and determine its required composition.

Comparison of the results of timing for a group of workers performing the same operation makes it possible to identify the best ways to perform this operation, to clearly show the workers the advantages and disadvantages in performing each technique. This arouses the interest of workers in rationalizing production and saving time.

Timing object - a production operation performed by a worker or their group at a specific workplace.

Depending on the purpose of the study and the nature of the work performed, observation during timing can be continuous and selective. In practice, there are three methods of timing:

• 1) solid - by current time;
• 2) selective - on separate counts of time spent;
• 3) cyclic - by groups of techniques, actions and movements that have such a short duration that it is impossible to measure the time of their implementation separately.

According to the object of observation, timing can be:

• 1) individual, those. the time of work of one worker employed on one machine is measured;
• 2) brigade, when the time of work of a team engaged in the performance of a common technologically related work at one workplace is studied;
• 3) multitasking work.

When timing is most widely used digital recording. In some cases, graphic notation is supplemented with digital and index marks (combined notation). When conducting observations in order to identify the best, as well as unnecessary and irrationally performed actions and movements of the worker, photo, film, video and oscillographic recording are used.

Timekeeping in some cases can be carried out using various kinds of stopwatches. The counting of the results of measurements is made by the observer visually according to the indications of the stopwatch hand and is entered by him in the observation chart. In other cases, graphic devices such as chronographs and special photographic and film equipment are used. In this case, the observer is freed from counting and recording time readings, since the chronograph shows the total time for each element of the operation, the total number of measurements and gives a chronogram, which fixes the duration of individual costs, their sequence and overlaps in time.

Timing should be carried out after 50-60 minutes. after the start of work, i.e. at the end of the working period. It is also recommended to take measurements 1.5-2.0 hours before the end of work. Compliance with these conditions allows you to more accurately determine the labor costs of the worker or their group, since the observation covers shift periods with an average pace of work, which are determined by the curve of changes in working capacity. It is not advisable to conduct chronometric observations at the beginning and at the end of the shift. Observations on the first and last day of the working week should also be avoided.

When determining the time of chronometric observations, it is necessary to take into account not only changes in the pace of work of the same worker due to workability and fatigue, but also changes in the organizational and technical conditions of the production process. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct observations during the period when there are deviations from the organizational and technical conditions laid down in the development of norms or the organization of workplaces fully complies with scientific requirements.

The choice of the object of observation during timing is determined by the purpose of the study. To study and generalize the best experience, observations are carried out on the best workers. For these purposes, according to the method of engineer Kovalev, the best methods of work of other workers are used and analyzed. To carry out and eliminate the causes of poor performance, observations are made on lagging workers.

If observations are carried out to develop production standards (time), then average workers are selected as the object of observation. Such a choice is recommended to be made simply according to the data on the fulfillment of the working norms of output for the month. Workers who do not meet production standards are not taken into account. For the rest of the workers, the arithmetic mean level of compliance with the norms is calculated. The objects of observation are workers who have a level of compliance with the norms close to the arithmetic mean level. The disadvantage of this technique is the low accuracy of the result, therefore it is used for single and small-scale production, where, with reduced requirements for the accuracy of the norms, simplicity and efficiency of their development are necessary.

In stable production, it is more expedient to select workers with an average pace of work based on the data of preliminary momentary observations.

Preparation for timing observation, in addition to determining the purpose of timing and choosing the object of observation, includes the following points:

• the operation under study is divided into its constituent elements - complexes of techniques, techniques, actions. The degree of dissection depends on the purpose of observation and the type of production;
• after dividing the operation into constituent elements, their exact boundaries or fixing points are established. Fixing points- these are sharply expressed (by sound or visual perception) moments of the beginning and end of the execution of an element of the operation. For example, the touch of a hand on a tool, a part, a button, the sound of a blow when a part is put aside, etc. The correct choice of fixing points facilitates observation and allows you to more accurately determine the duration of the operation element;
• in order to obtain reliable results of timing, before it is carried out, the issue of the required number of measurements and observations is decided. Their number depends on the duration of the operation element, the type of production, as well as on the requirements for the accuracy of obtaining data.

which are usually given in works on technical regulation, are contradictory. In most cases, the number of timing measurements is set only depending on the duration of the operation. HELL. Galtsov and G.N. Cold is recommended to determine their number, taking into account the duration of the timed operation and the type of production. Using the methods of the Research Institute of Labor, the number of chronometric observations was determined depending on the duration of the elements of the operation and the types of work (manual, machine-manual, active observation). In addition to the duration of the normalized operation, the frequency of elements during the year is also taken into account.

The fluctuation in the number of measurements according to various sources reaches significant values. So, with the duration of the operation up to 1 min. it is recommended to carry out from 10 to 60 measurements (discrepancy by 6 times); up to 6 min. - from 10 to 30 (3 times); up to 10 min. - from 4 to 30 measurements. The presence of such significant differences in the choice of the number of timing measurements indicates the need to use mathematical methods in determining the scope of observations. The use of these methods is also supported by the fact that when determining the optimal number of observations, all authors proceed from the fact that the shorter the duration of the operation, the more observations should be; the greater the repeatability of the operation and the higher the requirements for the accuracy of the materials obtained, the greater the number of measurements should be taken.

Insufficient development of methods for determining the required number of timing observations leads to the fact that the number of observations is often chosen arbitrarily, and the values ​​of the factors under which timing observations are carried out, with the goal of developing standards, are random. As a result, the observational data do not accurately express the dependence of the time spent on the factors influencing them, which affects the quality of the norms and normative materials being developed. The Research Institute of Labor developed recommendations for determining the required number of timing observations. They are based on the theory of experiment planning. Determination of the number of observations according to this method includes the construction of observation plans and the calculation of the number of timing observations for each position of the plan. The construction of observation plans depends on the number of influencing factors in the form of time dependence on these factors. The selection of factors is made on the basis of a logical analysis of their impact on time costs, taking into account previous experience. The type of dependence of the time spent on the selected factors is not known in advance, but in the practice of normalization, a nonlinear dependence is most often encountered.

The timing observation plan is a matrix, the columns of which contain the values ​​of factors (their number is equal to the number of factors), and the rows (positions of the plan) are combinations of factors for which timing observations should be carried out.

Carrying out timing observations according to previously developed plans improves the quality of the developed time standards.

When planning chronometric observation at the stage of its preparation, it is necessary to take into account the level of change in the worker's working capacity during the day. So, measurements should not be taken during the period of working in and reducing efficiency, i.e. at times of low performance. Especially if the length of the measurement period is sufficiently short. The greatest objectivity of the results is achieved when conducting observations in the phase of stable performance.

When conducting chronometric observations, it is necessary to specifically record all changes in the organization and maintenance of workplaces, equipment operation modes, and the structure of production operations.

A detailed description of operations, equipment, tools and other data is entered into the chronocard before the start of observation. Carrying out this work allows you to establish whether the organizational and technical conditions for performing work at a given workplace correspond to the design ones, and develop measures for the organization of labor in accordance with the requirements of the NOT (scientific organization of labor).

When preparing for timekeeping observation, the worker should also be familiarized with the purpose of the study and the procedure for conducting it.

The second stage of timing is observation. The observer, having taken a pre-selected place, determines the readings of the current time on the corresponding instruments and writes them down in the observation sheet of the chronocard for all elements of the operation. He must catch fixing points, fill in the observation sheet, monitor the correctness of the operation. All stops due to the fault of the worker, malfunctions or errors of the observer must be reflected in the chronocard. For this, a section is specially distinguished in the observation sheet: defective measurements, their cause and duration.

The processing of the obtained results begins with the calculation of the duration of the elements of the operation by subtracting the current time of the previous element from the current time of this element.

After carrying out all the calculations, a series of values ​​for the duration of the elements of the operation is obtained, i.e. timing line. Their number corresponds to the number of elements into which the operation was divided.

In case of significant deviations from the duration of the elements in this time series, which are the result of erroneous (defective) measurements, the time series is cleared, i.e. identification and exclusion from further analysis of defective measurements.

The quality of the obtained materials is determined through the magnitude of fluctuations in the values ​​of the chronological order - the coefficient of stability of the chronological order (K ush) which shows the degree of fluctuation of the maximum duration of the operation element from the minimum. This coefficient is defined as the ratio of the maximum duration of the operation element (T tah) to the minimum (Tmin):

Comparing the actual values ​​of the stability coefficients for each time series with its standard values, the quality of timing is determined. If , then the time series is considered stable, and the observation is carried out qualitatively. If , then from the series it is necessary to exclude one or

both extreme values ​​(maximum or minimum), provided that they did not repeat during the observation more than once. Then the stability coefficient is calculated again and compared with the normative one. If the time series turns out to be unstable again, then the observation must be carried out again. The number of excluded values, including defective ones, should not exceed 15%. The normative coefficients of stability of the time series are characterized by the data given in Table. 10.

Table 10

Normative values ​​of the coefficients of stability of the chrono-series

Serial production at the workplace and duration	Normalized coefficient of stability of the time series for work
the element of work being studied, with	machine	machine-manual	manual
Bulk up to 3
Large series up to 3
Serial
Small-scale

Photochronometry. In single-piece and small-scale production, workers during a shift often perform a number of different jobs, either completely non-repeating or repeating an insignificant number of times. This makes timing difficult. To study the cost of working time, in this case, combined observation is used, combining photography with timing. This type of observation and study of the cost of working time, called photochronometry, consists in the fact that in the process of photographing for a certain period of time, differentiated measurements are carried out according to the elements of operational time; throughout the rest of the observation time, the duration of the elements is fixed only in total.

With photochronometry, it is possible to use the method of continuous measurements and the method of selective measurements. Photochronometry can cover the work of one worker, a team of workers and a multi-machine operator. In this case, digital, graphic and combined recording is used. Processing of the results of observations in this case is carried out:

• when determining the execution time of the elements of the operation in the same way as with timing;
• when determining other costs - by the method used when processing these photographs of the working day.

The time of observation depends on the purposes of photo timing. The existing methods of chronometric observations, photo timing and photographs of the working day using stopwatches as a means of recording time at the present time can no longer fully meet the requirements of the organization and regulation of labor for a number of reasons:

• the very high labor intensity and the duration of the collection and processing of materials will not allow developing in a short time the norms of labor costs for new types of work, maintaining the necessary level of progressiveness of the norms;
• conducting a large number of chronometric observations has a psychologically negative effect on workers and in some cases leads to a decrease in the established pace of the operation;
• the insignificant duration of the performance of individual labor movements in the conditions of mass production is hardly recorded even by a highly qualified observer. When timing such elements, the subjective perception of the observer has a significant influence.

Compliance with the methods used to study the costs of the worker

time to modern production requirements requires the development of other approaches to study the cost of working time and the use of modern technical means of collecting initial information.