Denis Valentinovich Manturov Minister of Industry and Trade of the Russian ...
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Valery Zelinsky
INSTITUTE FOR GENERAL RESEARCH
For those who have not studied psychology, it often seems that chaos reigns in psychology and that all the classics of psychology dispute each other. One often hears stupidity - they say, there are so many opposing points of view in psychology that none should be taken seriously.
Before you is a work that has become a classic of Russian psychology. The author himself, the founder of the cultural-historical theory, Lev Semyonovich Vygotsky, described it as "a psychological study of one of the most difficult, confusing and complex questions of experimental psychology - the question of the connection between thinking and speech."
He substantiated the novelty and revolutionary nature of his work in the following points:
Experimental establishment of the fact that the meanings of words develop in childhood, and determination of the main stages in their development;
Disclosure of a kind of development path scientific concepts the child in comparison with his spontaneous concepts and the clarification of the basic laws of this development;
Disclosure of the psychological nature of written speech as an independent function of speech and its relationship to thinking;
Experimental disclosure of the psychological nature of inner speech and its relationship to thinking.
The book you are holding in your hands fully reproduces the last lifetime edition of L. S. Vygotsky, published in 1934.
The study is basic for the study by students of psychological faculties and many other humanitarian ...
Full name Sigismund Shlomo Freud, Austrian psychologist, psychiatrist and neurologist, founder of the psychoanalytic school - a therapeutic trend in psychology, postulating the theory that neurotic disorders of a person are caused by a multi-complex relationship between unconscious and conscious processes.
was born on May 6 in 1856 in the Moravian town of Freiberg in Austria-Hungary (now the city of Pribor, and it is located in the Czech Republic) in the traditional Jewish family of 40-year-old father Jakub Freud and his 20-year-old wife Amalia Natanson. He was the firstborn of a young mother. After Sigmund, the Freuds had five daughters and one more son from 1858 to 1866. In 1859 the family moved to Leipzig and then to Vienna. In the gymnasium he showed linguistic abilities and graduated with honors (first student).
In 1873 he entered the University of Vienna at the Faculty of Medicine, finished it excellently in 1881, showing a penchant for research activity. The need to earn money did not allow him to stay at the department, and he enters first at the Physiological Institute, and then at the Vienna Hospital, where he works as a doctor, moving from one department to another. In 1885 he received the title of assistant professor, and he was granted a scholarship for a scientific internship abroad, after which he went to Paris to the Salpetriere clinic to the famous psychiatrist J.M. Charcot, who used hypnosis to treat mental illness. Freud was impressed by the practice at the Charcot clinic. he was witnessing the healing of patients with hysteria, who suffered mainly from paralysis.
Upon his return from Paris, Freud opens a private practice in Vienna. He immediately decides to try hypnosis on his patients. The first success was inspiring. In the first few weeks, he achieved instant healing for several patients. A rumor spread throughout Vienna that Dr. Freud was a miracle worker. But soon there were failures. He became disillusioned with hypnotic therapy, as he did with drug and physical therapy.
In 1886, Freud marries Martha Bernays. Subsequently, they have six children - Matilda (1887-1978), Jean Martin (1889-1967, named after Charcot), Oliver (1891-1969), Ernst (1892-1970), Sofia (1893-1920) and Anna ( 1895-1982). It was Anna who became a follower of her father, founded child psychoanalysis, systematized and developed psychoanalytic theory, made a significant contribution to the theory and practice of psychoanalysis in her writings.
In 1891, Freud moved to a house at Vienna IX, Berggasse 19, where he lived with his family and received patients until his forced emigration in June 1937. In the same year, Freud began to develop together with J. Breuer a special method of hypnotherapy - the so-called cathartic (from the Greek katharsis - purification). Together they continue the study of hysteria and its cathartic treatment. In 1895, they published the book "Studies on Hysteria", which for the first time talks about the relationship between the emergence of neurosis and unsatisfied drives and emotions, repressed from consciousness. Freud is also occupied with another state of the human psyche, similar to the hypnotic one - a dream. In the same year, he discovers the basic formula for the secret of dreams: each of them is the fulfillment of a desire. This thought struck him so much that he even jokingly suggested nailing a commemorative plaque in the place where it happened. Five years later, he expounded these ideas in his book, The Interpretation of Dreams, which he invariably considered his best work. Developing his ideas, Freud concludes that the main force guiding all actions, thoughts and desires of a person is the libido energy, that is, the power of sexual desire. The human unconscious is filled with this energy, and therefore it is in constant confrontation with consciousness - the embodiment of moral norms and moral foundations. Thus, he comes to a description of the hierarchical structure of the psyche, consisting of three "levels": consciousness, preconscious and unconscious.
CLASSICS OF FOREIGN PSYCHOLOGYCarl Gustav
Analytical psychology
Past and present
Compilers
Valery Zelinsky
and Alexey Rutkevich
"MARTIS"
Moscow 1995
INSTITUTE FOR GENERAL RESEARCH
The materials of the book are given
Analytical psychology: Past and present / K.G. Jung, E. Samuels, W. Odinik, J. Hubback; Compiled by V.V. Zelensky, A.M. Rutkevich. - M .: Martis, 1995 .-- 320 p. - (Classics of foreign psychology).
ISBN 5-7248-0034-9
The book consists of two sections, the first one presents articles by K.G. Jung of different years, in the second - articles of contemporary American psychoanalysts, followers of Jung.
For specialists and a wide range of readers.
Foreword. A. Rutkevich 7
Carl Gustav Jung. Articles from different years
Psychotherapy and worldview 45
Translated by German A. Rutkevich
Psychoanalysis 53
Translated from English by O. Raevskaya
The concept of the collective unconscious 71
Conscience from a psychological point of view 80
Translated from German by A. Rutkevich
Good and Evil in Analytical Psychology 99
Translated from German by A. Rutkevich
Present and future 113
Translated from German by A. Rutkevich
Three interviews from the book "Jung Speaks ..." 167
Translated from English by E. Petrova
Letters 107
Translated from German by A. Rutkevich
Modern analytical psychology
E. Samuels. Schools of Analytical Psychology 210
Translated from English by V. Nikitin
V. Odainik. Mass soul and mass man 243
Translated from English by K. Butyrin
J. Hubback. Tearing to Shreds: Pentheus, Bacchantes, and Analytical Psychology 256
Translated from English by V. Zelensky
Afterword. V. Zelensky 273
Name Index 305
00.htm - glava01
Foreword
The result of the long scientific activity of Carl Gustav Jung is not only two dozen thick volumes of the Collected Works, to which more and more new ones are gradually added (three volumes of his letters, several volumes with recordings of seminars have recently appeared). Jung was a practicing psychotherapist who treated people for 60 years. According to the memories of Jung's children His working day was as follows: from 8 to 10 in the morning he got acquainted with the correspondence, wrote himself or dictated letters; then three hours before lunch and three hours after there was a reception of patients. Reading scientific literature and writing their own works proceeded mainly in the evening, after the main medical activity. Only in the very last years of his life the number of patients had to be reduced, but Jung continued to practice medicine until the end of his days. The main provisions of his teachings are related to the observations of a practicing physician, they are not "fictional" a theoretician inclined to speculative thinking alone. But the main source of knowledge about the human soul for Jung was inner experience. It is not for nothing that his autobiography is called "Memories, Dreams, Reflections" *. Dreams are the gateway to the recesses of the collective unconscious, without which Jungian psychotherapy is impossible. (Freud also called dreams the "royal path" into the unconscious, but in orthodox psychoanalysis the interpretation of dreams is not as important as in Jung's teachings.) In autobiography, there are very few memories in the proper sense of the word. This is the story of the dialogue of consciousness with the depths of the psyche, starting with childhood dreams. The outer outline of Jung's life has to be completed by the researcher of creativity.
==7
Every thinker is in one way or another dependent on socio-economic and political institutions, historical events of his time, spiritual atmosphere. Plato might be hostile to Athenian democracy, but he would never have become a great philosopher in Sparta, so dear to his heart.
Jung is a European thinker, but Europe is large, there are dozens of cultural nations, various religious and scientific traditions. He was born in 1875 in Switzerland, lived in it, excluding the time of numerous trips around the world, all his life. The fact that in Switzerland, medical psychology is associated in the XX century. with a variety of philosophical teachings, perhaps not by chance. At the end of the last century, T. Flournoy worked here, and in our century - such supporters of the combination of psychoanalysis with the philosophy of M. Heidegger, as L. Binswanger and M. Boss; Piaget's purely scientific psychology is far from the extremes of behaviorism and does not exclude philosophical speculation. Until now, psychological education at the University of Zurich presupposes a very thorough course in philosophical anthropology: the one-sidedness of the modern natural science orientation is supplemented by the works of great European thinkers. To heal the souls of other people, you need to know your own, and such a consciousness inevitably raises the "last" questions of a philosophical or religious nature.
Switzerland is a country where Protestant and Catholic cantons have coexisted for a long time, where German, French, and Italian cultures meet each other (there is also another, Romansh, language that goes back to folk Latin). Switzerland, which celebrated seven centuries of its existence in 1991, at least four of them did not know feudalism (and earlier medieval urban communities found their basic freedoms here). Federalism and democracy are synonymous for Swiss. It belongs primarily to the commune, which has enormous autonomy, if only because half of the taxes it pays remain in the commune. She owns the Swiss, like his children, even if he moved to another city. Thus, Jung remained a citizen of Basel all his life: although he was born in the town of Kesswil (canton Tupray), his father was a Basel citizen, and he received this citizenship by inheritance. He became an honorary citizen of the small town of Kusnacht in his declining years, and this is a great honor for a Swiss, a rare exception to the rule. The Swiss belongs first to the community, then to the canton (there are 25 of them in this small country), and only then to the Swiss Union. It is clear that there are common problems, be they economic, political or environmental. Every adult male is sent annually to 2-3 weeks of military training.
Jung also had to fulfill this civic duty - from a private he had grown to a "reserve captain," to use Russian terminology.
The Swiss honor their connection with the community, the self-governing canton, and this is an important part of their life. They are true to traditions, local
dialects and customs that vary greatly from canton to canton. This attachment to the past, to tradition, also presupposes knowledge of one's genealogy.For centuries, the genealogical tree can be known here not only by the descendant of some aristocratic family (the nobility has never played a large role in Switzerland), but also by any burgher - such knowledge is facilitated by careful records in both the ecclesiastical and civil community register. This traditionalism, the strong connection between the present and the past, was reflected to some extent in Jung's teachings. Of course, he felt cramped in Switzerland - it was not for nothing that his main audience had long been the Anglo-Saxons - but, being a "citizen of the world", he never turned into a "ghost" cut off from any roots (as he called the inhabitants of huge cities), not remembering kinship, devoid of national culture, spiritual succession.
Politics often invaded the 20th century. in the holy of holies of metaphysical thought, literary creativity.
It is easier to support ideas about the harmony of opposites, yin and yang, light and darkness in the world process and in the soul of everyone, living in a country that was bypassed by the war and destruction of the 20th century 2 ... However, it was not in vain that Jung's focus was on the question: where does the world's evil come from? The question is by no means only theological. Wars and dictatorial regimes were also the subject of Jung's close attention. He also wrote on the widest range of topical issues of the day, whether we are talking about mass society, colonial politics, the "women's question" or ideologies, apocalyptic aspirations, etc.
Jung is not only Swiss, he is also German. Yes, at home the Swiss speak a dialect that differs from literary German, perhaps more than Ukrainian - from Russian. But at school, university, church, press, literature there is exclusively hochdeutsch, not to mention the natural proximity of the great German culture. And the Jung family is precisely German in origin, they are relatively recent citizens of the Alpine Republic.
Let's dwell briefly on Jung's pedigree, it is of interest and has been well studied by researchers of his work. 3 ... The initial
information about the Jungs dates back to the first half of the 17th century: Carl Jung, Doctor of Medicine and Doctor of Jurisprudence, Rector of the University of Mainz, is the first notable person in this family. True, the archives and church books of Mainz burned down in 1688, during the siege of the city by French troops. Jung's great-grandfather, physician Franz Ignaz Jung (1759–1831), moved from Mainz to Mannheim. During the Napoleonic campaigns, he was in charge of the field hospital. His brother, Sigismund von Jung (1745-1824), was a Bavarian chancellor and was married to Schleiermacher's daughter (the "von" appeared because the chancellor was promoted to a noble rank).
Of all Jung's ancestors, the most prominent figure was his grandfather Carl Gustav Sr. (1794–1864), who moved to Switzerland. He was accompanied by a legend that he was the illegitimate son of Goethe - the basis for this was an undeniable external resemblance. It is impossible to prove or disprove such legends: at least in the year preceding the birth of Carl Gustav the Elder, Goethe had never been to Mannheim, where the Jung family lived without a break. Carl Gustav Jr. considered the legend "bad taste." Although he immensely admired Goethe from childhood, he believed that the family of doctors and theologians 4 Jung himself is worthy of respect. Grandfather was a remarkable person not only for his scientific merits. He studied natural sciences and medicine in Heidelberg, becoming doctor summa cum laude at the age of 24, was both a practical surgeon and assistant professor, teacher of chemistry in Berlin. Here he entered the circle of romantics, became closely acquainted with the Schlegel brothers, L. Tieck and F. Schleiermacher (under the influence of the latter, he switched from Catholicism to Protestantism). Some of his poetic experiments were published in the magazines of romantics.
However, Karl Gustav Sr. did not live in Berlin for long, since he took an active part in politics - his ideal was a free and united Germany. When his friend, a student of theology Karl Sand, stabbed August Kotzebue (1819) and the Prussian government repressed the "demagogues", Jung was arrested, and with the aggravating circumstance that they found a hammer donated by Sand for mineralogical work (in police reports referred to exclusively as an "ax"). After more than a year of being behind bars, he was released without trial or sentence - with a ban on living in Prussian possessions. With a political reputation as a revolutionary “demagogue”, it was impossible to get a place in any German principality, and in 1821 Carl Gustav found himself in Paris. There is a chance meeting with Alexander
von Humboldt, which led to the resettlement to Switzerland.
Political emigrants in the 19th and 20th centuries. often lived in Switzerland, it is enough to mention the Russians - Herzen, Bakunin, Lenin (and later Solzhenitsyn). Few of these émigrés had any influence on Swiss life - Calvin is an exception. From German émigré scientists K. Vogt and K.G. Jung Sr. were probably the most prominent figures. Humboldt was looking for someone who could reorganize the medical faculty of the University of Basel, which had fallen into complete decline during the Napoleonic wars. The tireless work of Karl Gustav Sr. made him famous, and his grandson, studying at the medical faculty almost half a century after the death of his grandfather, constantly felt the spiritual presence of the famous ancestor. Nonconformism, the ability to unexpected actions for others, his grandfather showed all his life 5 but what is more curious is the fact that this surgeon, anatomist and chemist showed a significant interest in psychiatry. In particular, he founded a hospital for mentally ill children, while emphasizing the importance of scientific observation and psychological methods of treating mental illness. By the way, the father of Carl Gustav Jr., Paul Jung (1842–1896), was a pastor serving a psychiatric clinic for a long time. The youngest of thirteen children of the famous surgeon and dean, he was a Protestant priest, but not without an interest in science. He was a doctor not of theology, but of philology (oriental languages) and, judging by "Memories, Dreams, Reflections", he had doubts about the Christian faith, but fled from doubts with a genuine "sacrifice of the intellect." The problem of the relationship between knowledge and faith will become central in the later works of his son, who will choose the path of knowledge, gnosis, and not the faith prescribed by Lutheranism. The first objections arose in his youth. “I am reminded of my own father’s preparation for confirmation. The catechism was inexpressibly boring. Once I leafed through this little book to find at least something interesting, and my eyes fell on the paragraphs about the trinity. This interested me, and I began to wait impatiently when we get to this section in the lessons. When this long-awaited hour came, my father said: "We will skip this section, I myself do not understand anything." This is how my last hope was buried. Although I was surprised at my father's honesty, this did not stop me from being bored to death.
listening to all the talk about religion " 6 ... Since his student days, Jung has simply not entered Protestant churches; this world of impoverished, "naked", as he wrote, Christianity was spiritually alien to him. Conflicts with my father, however, did not have an "Oedipus" meaning. Later, it was not easy for him to accept Freud's teaching on the Oedipus complex for the very reason that the soft and weak-tempered father, who was "under the shoe" of an authoritarian wife, sickly, tormented by doubts, did not in any way cause jealous rivalry between his son. It is difficult to say what his son inherited from him - except perhaps the ability to languages, especially since from the age of 5 his father studied Latin with him. Later, her excellent knowledge helped in working with a colossal number of alchemical treatises of the 15th-17th centuries. Jung mastered English later perfectly, he knew French, as befits a Swiss, but, judging by the text of his French letters, somewhat worse 7 .
In one of the letters, written already at a very old age, Jung noticed that he had a "maternal" rather than "paternal" complex. A remark of this kind is also in his "Memoirs ...", where the mother is spoken of as a split personality, with pronounced parapsychological abilities inherited from his own mother. Her father, Jung's grandfather, Samuel Preiswerk (1799-1871), was also endowed with peculiar abilities. This doctor of theology, the compiler of the exemplary grammar of the Hebrew language (he indulged in it with all his soul, believing that it was this dialect that was spoken in heaven) was a visionary. If the anecdotes about the paternal grandfather have the most earthly character, then the memory of the grandfather-pastor, a spiritual person, remains in connection with his communication with the spirits of the departed. In his office, for example, there was always a chair for the spirit of his first wife, with whom he spoke at length once a week. Jung's mother told her son that as a child she often had to stand in the study behind the back of his grandfather writing a sermon. She drove away spirits that had a bad habit of interfering with work. Jung's later interest in all sorts of ghost vision, "double vision", duality of personality - all this was born from the family atmosphere. The "Spirits" (Poltergeist) often visited this family. Until now, it contains a steel knife, which suddenly split into 4 pieces in the closet with a crash, as if someone had cut it right on the blade. Jung's recollection of how Freud, who was visiting him, reacted to the phenomenon of "poltergeist" (rather skeptically) has survived. In a word, Jung's occult interests did not arise by accident.
Both Jung's father and mother came from families in which many generations of ancestors were engaged in mental work, and both grandfathers achieved notable success in their fields. But for younger children in huge families
did not inherit material well-being. The intelligentsia - if this word is applicable outside of its historical origin (Russia, Poland) - has always lived by its own labor, only occasionally reaching the upper levels of the social hierarchy. In Protestant countries, many prominent figures of science and culture were the sons of priests - suffice it to recall the philosophers and writers of the late 18th and early 19th centuries. In his seminar on Nietzsche's "Thus Spoke Zarathustra," Jung makes a number of interesting remarks about Nietzsche's "anti-Christianity", which, although in a negative form, is nevertheless associated with Protestant piety, German "cultural devotion." This also applies to Jung himself. From his youthful years he was in conflict with the faith of the fathers, only his rebellion took on forms different from those of Nietzsche. In the families of priests, the common for European culture gap along the line of faith-knowledge acquired a personal character. Unlike Nietzsche, Jung did not deny the Christian tradition as a whole, but still sought its living deep roots.
So, Carl Gustav Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in the town of Kesswil in the canton of Thurgau; six months later, the family moved to Laufen, and in 1879 - to Klein-Hünigen, today an industrial suburb of Basel, and then a patriarchal village. Here he went with the peasant children to elementary school. The family occupied an old house that once belonged to a noble family of Basel patricians (but it belonged to the community that provided it to their priest). The family's financial situation was not easy. From the age of II, Karl Gustav began to study at the Basel gymnasium. It was a difficult time for him. Not so much from the academic point of view - only mathematics caused serious difficulties 8 ... Firstly, he got from the world of a patriarchal village school with peasant children to the best Basel gymnasium, where the children of local patricians studied. These children with excellent manners and pocket money, with trips in the winter to the Alps, and in the summer at sea seemed to him at first almost “creatures from another world”: “Then I had to learn that we are poor, that my father is a poor rural priest and I myself am an even poorer pastor's son with holes in his shoes and wet socks, sitting for six hours at school. "
Karl Gustav was an uncommunicative, reserved teenager. He adapted to the external environment with considerable difficulty, preferring to communication the world of his own thoughts and fantasies. In a word, it was a classic
a case of what he himself later called "introversion." Dreams then played a huge role in his life. Monstrous, terrible images appeared in dreams; as he wrote, recalling, “initiation into the kingdom of darkness” took place. At the age of 12, he "learned what neurosis is" - for six months he did not go to school, until by an effort of will he forced himself to overcome the fits of sickness, which, as he believed, due to "escape from reality."
In the dreams of that time, another motive is important. The image of an old man endowed with magical powers was revealed, which was, as it were, his alter Ego. A closed and timid teenager, personality No. 1, lived in small everyday worries, and in dreams another hypostasis, personality No. 2, even had its own name (Philemon), declared itself in dreams. At the end of his studies at the gymnasium, having read the book "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" by F. Nietzsche, he was frightened: Nietzsche also had a personality No. 2 named Zarathustra; it supplanted the personality of the philosopher - hence the madness of Nietzsche (this is what Jung thought and later, contrary to the well-known medical diagnosis). Fear of such consequences of "dreaming" contributed to a decisive turn towards reality. Yes, and need forced one to turn to the outside world, and not flee from it.
Soon after completing his studies at the gymnasium and entering the university, his father dies, having managed to secure a free place for his son at the medical faculty. Then there were few such places, they were provided exclusively to the poor, and poverty became a reality after the death of his father. The family moves to a small house in the village of Bistningen, gets into debt to relatives. Jung has to earn extra money in the anatomical theater and laboratory and study hard. The fact that he graduated from the medical faculty in 5 years was a rarity at that time, usually they studied for a couple of years longer.
However, he found time to participate in student activities - not so much in entertainment as in philosophical discussions. Already the topic of the reports he made in the student society "Zofingia" speaks about the range of his interests - about the boundaries of natural science, about the occult. To the surprise of his student friends, he reads in his free time primarily philosophers, along with the ancient philosophers, these are primarily Schopenhauer, Kant, Nietzsche, E. von Hartmann. But at the same time Swedenborg, Jung-Stilling, Mesmer and other "occultists" are included in the reading circle. Jung's occult studies began with his acquaintance with mediumistic seances. His cousin, Elena Pricewerk, unexpectedly showed outstanding medical abilities, spoke the languages of various "spirits". Jung has been attending this circle for two years and making observations that will later serve as material for his doctoral dissertation.
In the last semester, I had to pass psychiatry. Jung was preparing to become a specialist in internal medicine and pathological anatomy, and although he had already taken a course in psychiatry, it did not arouse any interest in him.
Psychiatry was not very popular in the medical world, doctors knew about it, as a rule, as little as everyone else. Picking up Kraft-Ebing's textbook, Jung read that psychoses are "personality disorders." “My heart suddenly pounded. I had to get up and take a deep breath. The excitement was unusual, because it became clear to me, as in a flash of enlightenment, that for me there was no other goal than psychiatry. Only in it two streams of my interests merged together. Here there was an empirical field common to spiritual and biological facts, which I searched everywhere and did not find anywhere. Here, the clash of nature and spirit was a reality " 9 .
After the final exam, Jung allowed himself the "luxury" of going to the theater ("before that, my finances did not allow me such extravagances"). In December 1900, he took the position of an assistant at the Zurich clinic Burgholzli, led by the prominent psychiatrist E. Bleuler.
Basel and Zurich were symbolic for Jung. The cultural atmosphere of these cities, as it were, bore the imprint of two opposite tendencies of the European spirit. Basel is a living memory of European culture. The university did not forget about Erasmus, who taught there and Holbein, who studied at the Faculty of Philology, there were still professors who knew Nietzsche at the Faculty of Philology, on the streets of the city he met J. Burckhardt, whose grand-nephew Albert Ori was Jung's closest friend. The works of another Basel professor, Bachofen, on "maternal law" were taken back centuries to a hypothetical "matriarchy". Jung's interest in philosophy and theology caused bewilderment among his medical friends, but metaphysics was still considered in Basel a necessary side of spiritual life. In Zurich, she was more of an impractical "excess". Who needs all this old book knowledge? Science was seen here as a useful tool, valued for its applications, effective use in industry, construction, and medicine. Basel was rooted in the distant past, Zurich aspired to an equally distant future.
Not long before that, rebuilt by the architect A. Rütli, Zurich was almost without narrow medieval streets, but with a dense network of tram lines (a century ago it was an innovation!) It was a city of industry and finance, aimed at wealth and power. In these two cities Jung saw a "split" of the European soul: a new positivist-rational "asphalt civilization" consigns its roots to oblivion. And this is a natural outcome, for her soul has become ossified in dogmatic theology, which is replaced by the flat empiricism of science. Science and religion came into conflict precisely because religion has become divorced from life experience, and science leads to the fact that “we have become rich in knowledge, but poor in wisdom,” as he will soon write. In the scientific picture of the world, a person has become a mechanism among other mechanisms, his life loses all meaning.
It is necessary to find the area where science and religion do not refute each other, but, on the contrary, merge in search of the primary source of all meanings. Everything is rooted in the human soul, and psychology as an experimental science should not only establish facts - it should help modern man in his search for a holistic worldview, the meaning of life.
The Burgholzli clinic, located on the far outskirts of the then Zurich (about two hours' walk from the center), was something like a monastery. Bleuler demanded from the assistants not only the highest professionalism, but also the devotion of almost all their free time to treating patients. Every day, assistants had to report on the condition of the patients, 2-3 times a week, the medical histories of new patients were discussed; the evening round ended at 7 pm, and after that the assistants had to write the case histories. The clinic gates closed at 10 pm, the assistants did not have keys. One of Bleuler's demands was "dry law" - Jung would break it only after 9 years, and even then under Freud's persistent persuasion (later he would not deny himself a glass of wine once or twice a week).
Jung spent the first six months in the clinic as a recluse. He spends all his free time on 50-year volumes of the journal Allgemeine Zeitschrift für Psychiatrie, thus getting acquainted with publications for half a century since the beginning of modern clinical psychiatry. In his autobiography, he subjects the psychiatry of that time to the most harsh criticism. In many ways, this criticism is justified. To understand the human personality, be it healthy or sick, there are few formulas of natural science, not to mention the kind of psychiatry that sticks a label of this or that "syndrome" on a patient. No one recognizes a surgeon who has memorized textbooks but cannot operate; psychiatrists, on the other hand, often limited themselves to making a diagnosis, describing symptoms in scientific terms. They did not even think about treating complex mental disorders, and there was no way to treat them. But if you take the Bleuler-era Burgholzli clinic, then it gave Jung a lot. Bleuler guided young psychiatrists to new methods of treatment, he, albeit with reservations, later adopted psychoanalysis (not applicable, however, to most of his psychotic patients). It was Bleuler who drew Jung's attention to Freud's newly published book The Interpretation of Dreams - Jung made a report on this book at a meeting in Burgholzli back in 1901.
Jung's work at the clinic was successful in all respects. In 1902 he defended his doctoral dissertation, quickly climbed the hierarchical ladder and in 1905 took the place of senior physician - the second, after Bleuler, place in Burgholzli. He runs an outpatient clinic, where he practices psychotherapeutic practice, and runs a Laboratory where he develops psychological tests. At the same time, he received the title of assistant professor and taught at the medical faculty of the local university. The autobiography does not mention the fact that in 1902-1903. he trained for six months in France with P. Janet. In February 1903 he married
on Emma Rauschenbach, daughter of the manufacturer. Since 1908, the family has settled in Kusnacht, where Jung builds a large house on the shores of Lake Zurich according to his own design - here he will live until his death.
Freud's followers still often repeat the accusations that were heard at the beginning of the century among the Viennese Freudians: Jung, they say, “robbed” his teacher Freud and made his own system out of the stolen pieces. These accusations are simply not serious. Jung owed a great deal to Freud, and in his old age he repeated that Freud was the largest person he had ever met.
However, by the time they met in 1907, Jung's basic ideas had already been formed; in addition to his published dissertation ("On the Psychology and Pathology of the So-called Occult Phenomena", 1902), he published two monographs that had a wide resonance among psychologists and psychiatrists. One of them was devoted to the verbal-associative test, the other - "The Psychology of Dementia Praecox" (1907), although it was already written under the well-known influence of Freud's ideas, both in its clinical material and in its approach was not a simple repetition of psychoanalytic ideas. Jung's correspondence with Freydom shows that at first, with great doubts and reservations, he agrees only with certain Freudian propositions, then, from 1908 to about the end of 1911, doubts recede in order to renew with renewed vigor when working on the first doctrinal Jung's book Transformations and Symbols of Libido.
In February 1907, Jung arrived in Vienna, talked with Freud for thirteen hours without a break - this was the beginning of Jung's vigorous activity in the emerging psychoanalytic movement. Freud was unusually interested in the help of Jung and the "Swiss" he led. As he wrote at the time to his follower Abraham, without this support, psychoanalysis could end up in the ghetto as a "Jewish science"; it takes a lot of courage on Jung's upbringing, scientific and cultural background to advocate psychoanalysis. Freud places great hopes on Jung, proclaims him the "crown prince", gives him all sorts of powers Jung has to deal with colossal organizational work - he is the president of the newly emerged international psychoanalytic association, editor-in-chief of its journal - and this is in addition to intense medical, scientific and pedagogical activities. So Freud, not out of flattery, wrote to Jung that "I would not wish for another and better continuer and finisher of my work." 10 , and then he titled letters: "Dear friend and heir." Jung's interest in Freud was also understandable - a large, courageous thinker, who by that time alone had made discoveries that had turned the ideas of psychology and psychotherapy upside down.
But differences in positions on a number of issues are clearly visible and on
correspondence in the period 1908-1911, when Jung fully supported Freud. Questions about the etiology of neuroses remain open - he never fully accepted Freud's sexual theory. Discrepancies also concern worldview issues. For Freud, even then, religion was an illusion, almost an obsessive neurosis of humanity, in whose place science should come. Jung replied that "religion can only be replaced by religion." 11 ... Freud encouraged Jung to accept the teaching of sexuality as "a strengthening against the black mud pit of the occult," and for Jung, Freud's admiration for Eros was nothing more than a religion, a blind faith.
In the personal relationship of these two outstanding scientists, too much depended, however, not at all on scientific or philosophical differences. Psychoanalysis is mastered not just as a body of scientific knowledge; the doctor must first heal himself, undergo a course of analysis with a teacher. Incidentally, it was on Jung's initiative that a compulsory (and rather lengthy) course of "educational analysis" was introduced into the training of psychoanalysts. But in those years, the technique of psychoanalysis was only being developed, the analysts themselves were the "experimental", and therefore the effects of "transference" were superimposed on theoretical disputes, emotional conflicts and relationships were painted in the colors of family drama. Hence the hysterical fits of the fainting Freud, who saw in Jung's striving for independence something like a secret desire for "parricide." No matter how much Jung wrote later about his complete spiritual sovereignty during that period, both the correspondence with Freud and the severe mental crisis after the breakup say that he also had a "family" attachment. The situation became completely unbearable and because of the open hostility towards Jung of the Viennese circle of Freud - "court" intrigues appear wherever there is at least some kind of "court". It was this environment that subsequently created the myth of Jung's anti-Semitism. It is quite possible that the apparent cooling in the relationship occurred "at the suggestion" of this environment of Freud. The theoretical disagreements became apparent after the publication of the second volume of Transformations and Symbols of Libido, but the tone of Freud's letters changed dramatically not after reading the book, but after Jung's trip to the United States. Well-wishers, as usual, brought to Freud's attention precisely those passages of the lectures where Jung developed his own ideas, and not praise for psychoanalysis in general, filled with gratitude to Freud.
It should be said that this trip of Jung to the United States was preceded by another, together with Freud in September 1909, when both of them became doctors honoris causa and were unusually warmly received by the Americans. This is the beginning of the history of psychoanalysis in the United States, its enormous popularity in the country, which Freud called the "big mistake". It should be noted that Jungianism has always found the largest number of students and followers (although less than Freudianism) in the Anglo-Saxon countries.
What are the theoretical results of this first period of Jung's scientific activity? This period can be considered a time of formation, maturation of his own teaching. Already in his dissertation, he connects the darkened states of consciousness in mediums with unconsciously proceeding processes. Not "spirits", but unconsciously formed other "I", supplanting the "I" of the medium (or prophet, founder of a sect, poet, teacher), speak from the dark depths. A poorly educated girl-medium herself would not have come up with the system of the universe, which one of the "spirits" outlined - a system that in many features resembled ideas about the world of the Gnostics - the Valentinian. A little later, one of Burgholzli's patients in a hallucination observed obscure images. They were not clear to Jung himself, until after some time one ancient text was discovered and translated, where the same phallic image is used to characterize Mithra. It is clear that the patient who worked as a petty clerk had no idea about Mithraism, and the text was discovered several years later. Jung is gradually approaching the central point of his teaching, which he later called the teaching of the archetypes of the collective unconscious: beyond the threshold of consciousness lie eternal proto-forms that manifest themselves at different times in various cultures. They are, as it were, stored in the unconscious and are inherited from generation to generation. Unconscious processes are autonomous, they come to the surface in trances, visions, in images created by poets and artists. It was Jung who introduced into psychoanalysis the method of drawing parallels between dreams, fantasies and religious-mythological symbols (Freud recognized this merit even after the break in relations between them).
The concept of "complex" was also introduced into psychoanalysis by Jung in the course of work on the word-associative test. It served as a starting point for a number of projective tests and even the later created "lie detector". The test usually contained hundreds of words. The subject had to immediately respond to each of them with the first word that came to his mind. The reaction time was monitored by a stopwatch. Then the operation was repeated, and the subject had to reproduce his previous answers. Often the time for selecting the reaction word was lengthened, the subjects answered not with one word, but with a whole tirade, made mistakes when reproducing their answer, stuttered, fell silent, completely withdrawing into themselves. At the same time, they did not feel, for example, that the response to one stimulus word took them several times longer than to another.
Jung believed that errors of this kind were due to the fact that the stimulus word touched one or another "complex" - a bundle of associations colored by one emotional tone. These unconscious affective states, charged with psychic energy, possessed some kind of core — it could also be a representation repressed into the unconscious; but they could also form a "little self," their autonomous Ego. If we “touch” this complex (remind us of the repressed in a word), then traces of mild emotional disorder appear, up to the registered
physiological reactions. Thus, the reaction of one of the subjects to the words "knife", "port" and a number of others was so noticeable that Jung confidently told the subject after the session that he had killed someone in the port. Surprised by such a psychologist's omniscience, he said that he was a sailor and, indeed, in a fight in one of the port taverns, he killed a man with a knife, but for several years now he had been living as a respectable burgher and did not remember his former sailor life. The repressed memories, however, continued to live on in the unconscious. Initially, Jung believed that this test could make a real revolution in forensic science, but later recognized that its application has its limits - the "complex" may have nothing to do with actual events, but arise in connection with unconscious fantasies, suppressed aspirations, attitudes. For the development of Jung's theory, this test had the meaning that during the experiment, fragmented "personalities" were revealed, which in a normal person are in the shadow of his conscious "I", but in a schizophrenic with a pronounced dissociation of personality, these Ego come to the fore. And the appearance of "spirits" in the mind of a medium, and the disintegration of the personality of a schizophrenic, and "demonic possession" get their explanation - the entire legion of these. "Demons" already exist in our soul, and our conscious "I" is only one of the elements of the psyche, which has deeper and more ancient layers. Subsequently, Jung began to attribute the complexes to the personal unconscious, while the characteristics of special "personalities" were retained for the archetypes of the collective unconscious.
Not a single new theory arises from scratch, out of nothing - Jung had many predecessors, in 1910-1912. he finds time to read a huge literature on mythology, ethnography, religious studies, astrology and other "secret sciences". The book "Transformations and Symbols of Libido" was the first attempt at synthesis, still very imperfect 12 , but it already obviously contains ideas that are far from Freud's. Freud at this time was working on Totem and Taboo, one of the most important books for psychoanalysis. For both, ontogeny repeats phylogeny, both draw parallels between myths, dreams, childhood and primitive thinking. However, if Freud and other psychoanalysts who wrote about myths at that time (Rank, Abraham) were inclined to reduce myths to individual childhood fantasies, to the “pleasure principle,” Jung considers mythology to be an expression of the universal human, collective unconscious. The difference from Freudianism is due to both significantly less interest in child psychology. 13 and with incomparably higher
assessment of fantasy. What was an illusion for Freud, for Jung turns out to be a kind of intuition. In addition to logical thinking oriented towards adaptation to the external world, there is another type - inward-facing “introverted thinking”.
The doctrine of the two types of thinking in many ways resembles the then fashionable theories of the "philosophy of life" (Jung directly refers to Bergson, who wrote about intelligence and intuition). The influence on Jung of German romanticism and "philosophy of life", vitalism in biology is beyond doubt. While still a student, he read Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, a multivolume study of the romanticist of the early 19th century. von Schubert he studied in 1910-1911. But there are also obvious differences associated with Jung's psychological approach. For example, he often refers to Levy-Bruhl, who wrote about primitive thinking as a world of "representations collectives" and "mystical participation" (participation mistique). But Levy-Bruhl's approach is determined rather by the sociologism of the Durkheim school, while in Jung's mythological primitive thinking belongs not only to the distant past - it is a biopsychological constant, the most important dimension of human existence. A man of a primitive tribe is only slightly divorced from "mother nature"; he does not yet have a subject-object abyss created by a developed consciousness. In addition to adapting to the external world, it is necessary to maintain harmony with the internal, with the inherited unconscious determinants of behavior and thinking. The savage maintains harmony with the help of myths, magic, rituals: he does not yet know the differentiation of external and internal, physical and mental, subject and object. The separation of consciousness from the unconscious in mythology is often described as a "fall into sin", but just as often myths contain another assessment - myths about heroes defeating chthonic monsters also speak of this break with the mother's soil. Even in the Bible, in connection with the Fall, it says “you will become like gods” (“knowledge of good and evil”). In primitive society, myths and rituals, initiation helped the individual to adapt to the inner world. Modern mankind, which has relied on the conquest of the external world by the forces of reason, has found itself in a dangerous separation from the soil of life. Logical thinking is characterized by a focus on external reality. Such thinking proceeds in judgments, it verbally requires an effort of will, it tires. Education, upbringing of such an orientation is required - logical thinking is an instrument and a product
culture. Science, technology, and industry associated with it are instruments of control over reality. In traditional societies, logical thinking was much less developed, there was still no need for enhanced "training" of the intellect. Jung hypothesizes that medieval scholasticism was this kind of training for modern European science. Unlike ancient philosophy, whose concepts had not yet broken away from the classical images of mythology, scholasticism was a purely conceptual game, thus preparing modern science. Logical thinking is extroverted, i.e. the flow of psychic energy is directed mainly outside, towards the outside world. Western civilization is the ultimate case of extroversion: knowledge in it is unambiguously associated with strength, power over nature, power, rational control.
Undirected intuitive thinking is a stream of images, not concepts. It doesn't tire us. As soon as we relax, we lose the thread of logical thinking, moving on to the natural play of imagination for a person. Such thinking is unproductive for adapting to the external world, but it is necessary for artistic creativity, mythology, religion, and inner harmony. "All those creative forces that modern man puts into science and technology, ancient man devoted to his myths" 14 ... In dreams, the control of logical thinking weakens also in modern man, he again enters the kingdom of mythology he has lost. But modern mankind, which has made a proud rejection of "prejudices", has only a dozen generations. In the collective unconscious, proto-forms have settled, which find their expression precisely in myths. Even if all religious and mythological traditions were destroyed at one blow, then all mythology would be revived in the next generation, since the symbols of religion and mythology are rooted in the psyche of every individual, they are inherited by us from thousands of generations. The masses always live with myths, only small groups of people can get rid of them in transitional epochs, and they twist old myths, making room for new ones; but this "new" is really only the forgotten old.
We will find these ideas in all subsequent writings of Jung. Another important - and decisive for the break with Freud - was the provision of the non-sexual nature of libido. Freud at that time associated psychic energy with sexual attraction (later he introduced the "death instinct"). For Jung, libido is psychic energy in general; it only in certain neurotic cases acts as a sexual desire. Freud considered mental processes using a physicalist model, in which rigid determinism played a decisive role. For Jung, mental processes are endowed with expediency; we can say that Freud's understanding of causality is Democritical, and Jung's
- Aristotelian. The psyche is for Jung a self-regulating system in which there is a constant exchange of energy between its elements. Energy is born from the struggle of opposites. Fundamental for Jung is the idea of "unity", "running towards each other" of opposites ("enantiodromia" of Heraclitus, complexio oppositorum of Nikolai of Kuzansky, yin and yang Chinese philosophy). Isolation of any part of the psyche leads to a loss of energy balance. When consciousness breaks away from the unconscious, and this is what happens in a modern person, the unconscious seeks to "compensate" for this gap. In unexpected situations, when difficulties arise that the consciousness cannot cope with, the unconscious manifests its compensatory function, the energy of the entire psyche is connected. You just need to be able to "listen" to what the unconscious says, primarily in dreams. The pressure of the unconscious, the "invasion" of its contents into consciousness can lead not only to individual psychoses, but also to collective madness. The lamp of reason is then overwhelmed by the dark waters of the unconscious, all sorts of "leaders" are made mediums of pre- or superhuman powers. Jung explained the mass movements and political events of our century by precisely this kind of "invasions" - the basis for this was his personal experience of confrontation with the collective unconscious.
After breaking up with Freud, Jung finds himself completely alone. He resigns from all posts in the Psychoanalytic Association, and leaves the university. Relations with Swiss doctors had long been ruined (Jung left Burgholzli back in 1909), he is faced with a complete lack of understanding in the medical environment, relations with almost all former friends and acquaintances are broken. A critical period began, which Jung himself called a time of "inner uncertainty, even disorientation." This period lasted about 6 years, until 1918, and its initial stage was extremely painful, almost psychotic. Jung removes all dams from the path of unconscious images, surrenders to their flow, and they fill consciousness. These images acquired a particularly monstrous character in the spring and summer of 1914: the whole of Europe is drowning in blood, stumps of human bodies are floating in it, rivers of blood are approaching the Alps. These fantasies suddenly ended when hallucinations became a reality in World War I. 15 ... According to Jung's recollections, he did not expect war, believing it to be impossible, and saw in his visions rather a premonition of a social revolution in one of the European countries. He considered the "breakthrough" of the unconscious into his consciousness a special case of what was happening with less obviousness in the souls of all Europeans - war
are born in the psyche of individuals who become toys of forces that overcome good conscious intentions. From this personal experience of confrontation with the unconscious, Jung's entire system of psychotherapy is born: he overcame a nearly psychotic state himself, now he knew how to heal others. The result of six years of continuous meditation was compiled at that time (and still, due to their personal nature, unpublished) "red" book with notes and drawings of dreams, as well as Septem Sermones ad Mortuos, published in a small edition - on behalf of the Gnostic Basilides of Alexandria - a booklet , which reflected the visions of that time, comparable to Gnosticism.
For the Russian researcher of Jung's work, it is of considerable interest to the fact that Jung's only friend at that time was Emily Karlovich Medtner, who happened to be in Switzerland. Today this name is familiar mainly to music historians in connection with his brother-composer Nikolai Medtner. Only in the memoirs of Andrei Bely, who for many years was E. Metner's closest friend, considerable attention was paid to the latter. Medtner's pre-revolutionary books about Goethe and Wagner are forgotten, as well as the fact that it was he who founded the Musaget publishing house and the Logos magazine. This Russified German (or "Russian German") was not only a kulturtrager, but also an extraordinary mind. According to Bely, at the beginning of the century, Medtner expressed ideas that later came into use through the works of Spengler and other Western philosophers. I will take the liberty of asserting that some of the lines of Bely's novel Petersburg ("Turanism", etc.) are associated with the influence of Medtner.
According to Jung's son, Medtner's psychological support was of great importance to his father. Medtner was the only interlocutor who fully understood Jung's ideas. This is not surprising if we take into account his past - the ideas of Russian Symbolists, Sophiologists. Kant, Goethe and Nietzsche were the air that Medtner breathed in Russia. His close friend was also such a philosopher as I.A. Ilyin - the antipode of all kinds of mystical seductions. Jung's fundamental work, "Psychological Types", was created in almost daily conversations with Medtner 16 ... According to the recollections of Jung's daughter, every time Medtner appeared, the clavier sounded in the house. In a word, Jung found a subtle, intelligent and no less educated interlocutor, and in the first historiosophical part of "Psychological Types" one can find many parallels with what was characteristic of Russian philosophical culture at the beginning of the century.
Of course, Medtner's influence should not be exaggerated either. He could help Jung in formulating some ideas, but they belonged to Jung himself. Medtner becomes the publisher of Jung's works, writes prefaces to translations of his works 17 , publishes in German the book "On the so-called intuition" (1922), in which he tries to give a philosophical - Kantian in spirit - substantiation of Jung's psychology. However, already in this work, differences are visible - in the interpretation of Gnosticism, in the complete rejection of any occultism (Medtner settles scores with the anthroposophy that seduced Bely). For the researcher of Jung's work, his great article is of great value. 18 - the last publication of Medtner - in the volume published for the 60th anniversary of Jung, since it deals with the personality of Jung, and in that period that is little known to subsequent biographers - Jung's disciples of the 30-50s. For them, Jung is already an indisputable authority, "the old sage from Kusnacht"; the time of searches, contradictions, internal struggle, doubts is over.
"Psychological Types" is Jung's first mature work, in which the synthesis of his psychiatric and psychotherapeutic experience, scientific observations, religious-philosophical, cultural and ethnographic ideas has already been realized. The previously formulated ideas about extra-vertic and introverted thinking have received their final form, a detailed analysis of psychological types and functions is carried out. By that time, the circle of Jung's ideas had already been finally formed, in the future there will be an increment of material and deepening of the theory, but the main contours of the latter are already clearly visible.
Of the books that had a definite influence on Jung in the period immediately preceding this maturity of thought, one should note the book of the German theologian R. Otto, The Sacred, published in 1917. It provides a phenomenological description of the experience of the "numinous", divine as majestic, giving fullness of being, but at the same time terrifying, overwhelming with fear and awe. But if Otto is talking about the perception of the supernatural in the spirit of the Judeo-Christian tradition, and even in a specifically Lutheran reading of it, then Jung uses the term "numinous" in a broader sense. Before the transcendental Judeo-Christian God, man feels that he is only "dust and ashes," "dust of the earth," while Jung associates the numinous with the experience of the archetypes of the collective unconscious.
In books and articles of the 20s, this theory develops primarily on the basis of psychological and psychiatric observations, primarily
in the fundamental work "The relationship between the self and the unconscious" (1928); in the future, Jung increasingly draws on materials from alchemy, mythology, various cultures and traditions. In the 1920s, he traveled to Africa and America, got acquainted with the life of the almost primitive tribes there; in the 30s he went to India and Ceylon. Interest in European alchemy awakens when it collides with Chinese: the work on the commentary on the Taoist treatise The Secret of the Golden Flower, translated by his friend Richard Wilhelm, led not only to acquaintance with ancient China. For a long time, Jung could not explain the reason for the coincidences between the images and symbols of late Hellenistic religious and philosophical teachings, especially Gnosticism, which were regularly reproduced in dreams, hallucinations, deliriums, and fantasies of his patients. Jung's own unconscious, judging by the text he wrote on behalf of Basilides, also spoke in symbols reminiscent of the Gnostic. In medieval alchemy, Jung discovered an intermediate link: Gnostic thought, suppressed in its time by Christianity, existed in the "secret sciences" of the Middle Ages and only in recent centuries was it finally forced out into the unconscious. But as soon as the pressure of Christianity weakened, it was the Gnostic symbolism that began to awaken. By the end of the Christian Aeon (astrologically - Pisces), those symbols that were in dispute with Christians at the beginning of the era of Christ again appeared.
It is clear that statements of this kind presuppose both a kind of "metaphysics" and a philosophy of history. Jung constantly emphasized that he was an empiricist, psychologist and psychotherapist, did not put forward or solve metaphysical hypotheses, and kept to the area of possible experimental knowledge. At the same time, he often refers to Kant ("It is completely outdated, namely from the time of Immanuel Kant," he wrote in one of his later letters, "is the point of view that it is in the power of people to assert metaphysical truths"). However, his teaching about the archetypes of the collective unconscious is by no means empirical. Of course, the images of dreams or hallucinations, mythology or art represent the factual basis of his teaching. But these images can receive a completely different theoretical interpretation.
In introducing the concept of the collective unconscious, Jung had to clearly separate his concept from Freud's psychoanalysis. What psychoanalysts deal with is the personal unconscious, consisting of repressed "complexes." In childhood or adulthood, they entered consciousness, but were forced out of it, or they are simply forgotten ideas that did not overcome the threshold of consciousness. In any case, they met the individual throughout his life, this is part of his psychic biography.
before the emergence of consciousness and continues to pursue its "own" goals in spite of the developed consciousness, and sometimes in spite of it. This is the result of ancestral life going through thousands of generations of people into the animal kingdom. Jung compared the collective unconscious with a matrix, a mycelium (a mushroom is an individual soul), with an underwater part of a mountain or an iceberg: the deeper we go “under the water,” the wider the base. Like our body, the psyche is the result of evolution, typical reactions of the organism to repetitive conditions of life are imprinted in it. Instincts are automatic reactions of this kind, and they can be extremely complex. Under the influence of congenital programs are not only behavioral acts, but also perception, thinking, imagination. A person has both instincts common to all mammals (or even all living things) and specifically human unconscious reactions to the environment, be it physical phenomena, other people or their own psychophysiological states. Jung calls universal prototypes, prototypes of behavior and thinking archetypes. It is a system of attitudes and reactions that determines a person's life ("all the more efficiently that is imperceptible"). Archetypes are correlates of instincts, together they form the unconscious. These are, as it were, two sides of the same coin - a cognitive image and a behavioral act. Consciousness directs volitional acts, intuitive comprehension of the archetype "pulls the trigger" of instinctive action in the corresponding situation "Archetypes are typical ways of understanding, and wherever we meet uniform and regularly renewed ways of understanding, we are dealing with archetypes." 19 ... The archetypes have accumulated the experience of those situations in which an infinite number of ancestors of modern man had to "pull the trigger" of just such an action; it is a cognitive structure in which generic experience is recorded in a concise form.
Jung compared archetypes to a crystal axis system. It transforms the crystal in solution, acting as a field that distributes the particles of the substance. In the psyche, such "substance" is external and internal experience, organized according to these innate forms. Strictly speaking, the archetype itself does not enter consciousness, it is not given in sensory experience. Archetypes in this sense are hypothetical, represent a kind of model that allows you to explain the existing experience. Consciousness includes “archetypical images” that have already been consciously processed. In the experience of dreams, hallucinations, mystical visions, these images are closest to the archetype itself, since the conscious processing is minimal here. It is clear that not every image of a dream or hallucination is of an archetypal nature - such images are easily recognizable by their numinosity, by their power that overwhelms our psyche, and the feeling of power overcoming us.
In myths, fairy tales, religions, secret teachings and works of art, confused, perceived as something terrible, alien to us, images turn into symbols that become more and more perfect in their form and more and more general in their content. Gradually, world religions are being formed, which “contain initially secret intimate knowledge and express the secrets of the soul with the help of majestic images. Their temples and sacred writings proclaim in the image and word the teachings consecrated by antiquity, combining at the same time religious feeling, contemplation and thought. " 20 ... The more beautiful and grandiose such an image, the further it is from individual experience, the greater the danger of the transformation of living religion into ossified dogma. Once the ancient deities died, and in their place came Christianity, which, however, in its rituals and mysteries inherited a lot from the Hellenistic religions. Catholicism was the form that pervaded and organized all aspects of medieval Western European life. Like all other religions, Christianity then had a "magical protective wall" against the terrible vitality lurking in the depths of the soul. Such a wall is symbols and dogmas that contribute to the assimilation of the colossal psychic energy of archetypal images.
Jung called the history of Protestantism "the chronicle of the storming" of these sacred symbolic walls. The Protestants bled the church, deprived it of pagan rituals and rituals, undermined the authority of the clergy, saved the parishioners from confession, making them the duty to read the Bible and believe blindly. The result is the loss of church life, the deadness of dogmas, the development of historical and philological criticism of the Bible. Symbols have lost their visual-figurative character, have become formulas that are completely meaningless for the rapidly developing scientific worldview. In traditional society, symbols that grow from the depths of the psyche are projected outward, forming an ordered cosmos. It is easy for a person to live in such a world, everything stands in its place, has a purpose and meaning. Both the savage and the man of traditional culture reproduced a mythological prototype with every action; he felt himself real only to the extent that he was involved in the divine order, the world cosmic cycles. In Judeo-Christian monotheism, these cycles were broken, world time became linear, irreversible, but Christianity nevertheless overcame, in the words of M. Eliade, "the horror of history." 21 , because it promised the final overcoming of the burden, victory over darkness and chaos, suffering and death itself. In addition, a lot of paganism remained in medieval Christianity - it was against it that Protestantism declared war.
With the destruction of the wall of symbols, "a huge amount of energy was thereby released and moved along the old channels of curiosity and acquisition, because of which Europe became the mother of dragons that devoured most of the Earth." The Reformation was followed by the Enlightenment, science, technology, and industry began to develop. The symbolic cosmos decomposed into formulas turned out to be alien to man; The “disenchantment of the world” has led to spiritual devastation, conflicts, wars, absurd political and social ideas and, of course, to a colossal increase in the number of mental illnesses.
When there are no more symbolic walls, then the energy of archetypes is not assimilated, they invade consciousness in the form of a psychotic image of mystical visions, political prophecies of "leaders". It is clear that in their content the latter remain mythological - Jung saw in National Socialism an exit to the surface of Germanic paganism, while in communist ideology, the presence of the myth of the "golden age", a childhood dream of heaven on Earth, was obvious to him. These are being replaced by other political myths - we live in an era of collective and individual insanity.
It should be said that Jung's assessments of Nazism in the 1930s were unequivocally negative - both in the works published at that time, in letters, and in the recently published two-volume text of the seminar on the book "Thus Spoke Zarathustra" by Nietzsche. Jung's son studied in Germany in the early 1930s, and, according to his recollections, whenever he came to Switzerland and talked with his father about German political life, the assessments of the National Socialist movement were only negative. Germany, as he wrote in 1936, became "a land of spiritual catastrophe."
What is the reason for Jung's accusations of "complicity with the Nazis", anti-Semitism, racism, which first appeared in the mid-30s, then were reanimated immediately after the war and are still being heard both by Freudians and other Marxists? Suppose the latter, referring to the Soviet critics of Jung, are simply illiterate: they had no time to read Jung, they had no time to figure it out, they read it somewhere and reproduced it, equipping it with appropriate ideological exclamations. With the Freudians, the situation is special - there until now Jung, at least in the older generation of Freud's disciples, remains a "traitor", there have been fables about him on various occasions 22 ... However, the charge of
cooperation with the Nazis and in anti-Semitism is serious enough not to dwell on the facts. As you know, any fact can be interpreted in different ways, revealing certain motives of the action. It is unlikely that anyone would accuse Freud of aiding Italian fascism on the grounds that he donated his book to Mussolini, or making him responsible for the executions of the Austrian Social Democrats, the suppression of the uprising of which he welcomed. Despite the many conflicting facts, Freudians find anti-Semitism and racism as one of the main motives behind Jung's actions. The only reason for this is one statement by Jung in a 1934 article, which talks about the differences in the psychology of Indo-Aryans and Jews, explained by the difference in the collective unconscious. In fact, we are talking about the fact that Freud's psychoanalysis is not suitable for understanding such phenomena as National Socialism, which Jung attributed to the invasion of archetypal images.
The explanation of Nazism by the "Wotan archetype" is probably not a good one. The very statement of Jung, which was polemically directed against Freudians, but emphasized the differences in the racial collective unconscious under the conditions of the persecution of Jews, was also untimely. However, Jewish authors also wrote about psychological differences, and not only convinced Zionists, but also the same Freud (suffice it to recall his letter to members of the B'nai Brit 23 ), while Jung specifically emphasized that differences do not mean "inferiority" of one side or the other. The Chinese also have their own psychology, but no one will claim that the Chinese are "inferior." Here Jung was wrong, just those who accused him of racism raised a fuss in the press: "He compares the Jews with the Mongol hordes!" 24
Jung, a fan of ancient Chinese culture, generally inclined to exalt traditional societies and oppose them to modern civilization, who lived for months among Indians and Negroes, any statements about the "white man's mission" seemed a disgusting lie. European civilization imposes its life forms on everyone, destroys like an elephant in a china shop, created by centuries of religion and tradition. It was rather Western culture that was "inferior" for him. The comparison of the Jews with the Chinese was explained by the fact that it was a question of two peoples with
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much more ancient than among the Germans and other northern Indo-Aryans, a culture, which was partly imprinted in the collective unconscious. This gives well-known advantages - greater differentiation of consciousness, reflection, but also leads to a lack of spontaneity in the creation of new cultural forms. Jung wrote the same about India, which is Indo-Aryan in origin, comparing yoga with Western "psychotechnics": the antiquity of culture has both positive and negative features. In any case, there is no need to talk about racism.
Jung had some illusions in connection with the initial stages of the Nazi movement, but here he was by no means alone. Flattering assessments were heard from the side and such experienced British politicians as Lloyd George or Churchill 25 ... But even then, he unequivocally assessed Nazism as a mass obsession. After the war, when accusations rained down on him, he did not consider it possible for himself to conduct a newspaper squabble. How to argue with the Weltwoche newspaper, he wrote to the Russian philosopher B.P. Vysheslavtsev, where these accusations appeared, if she glorified the Nazi regime for 10 years in a row, was kept on German money, reached such meanness as justifying the murder of the Austrian Chancellor Dolphus, and immediately after war with the same editor-in-chief accuses him of anti-Semitism, opposes Thomas Mann? The Swiss government, in fear of German aggression, practically did not allow political refugees or Jews from Germany, Swiss banks received gold bars made from dental crowns of hundreds of thousands of those killed in concentration camps and brokered deals between American and German firms all these years. 26 ... It was simply pointless to have a public discussion with these people. Jung's disciples, the Jews, had to answer. In the 1930s, when every emigrant needed not only to surreptitiously cross the border, but also to get recommendations, to get a job in order to gain a foothold in Switzerland, Jung rendered great help to a number of Jewish psychoanalysts. Some of them - I. Jacobi, A. Jaffe and others - became his closest students. It is not surprising that they are the ones who more often than others respond to the accusations of the Freudians - it is them, and not the authoritative Jewish rabbis and religious leaders. 27 .
It is the long-standing dislike of Jung by the followers of Freud that is the reason for all these accusations. What was it, if we put aside the biased statements about anti-Semitism, “cooperation with the Nazi regime”? When they came to power, they began to purge all organizations of "racially alien" elements. German psychotherapists persuaded Jung to become the head of the International Psychotherapeutic Society, which included the German Psychotherapeutic Society, led by Goering's cousin 28 ... Jung did this, he admitted, to save everything that could still be saved in German psychotherapy. He had a choice: either to stay on the sidelines with "clean hands", or to help his colleagues. He chose the latter. It should be said that this society included English, Dutch, Scandinavian psychoanalysts, with the same Goering considered it possible to maintain business contacts with Freud's closest associate and his future "official" biographer E. Jones. Several times he intended to leave this post, but he was persuaded to stay not only by German, but also by English and Dutch psychoanalysts. When he finally left his post, an English psychotherapist took over the presidency (and Jung's books immediately ended up on the Nazis' blacklist).
Collaboration with a criminal regime is a very serious charge. It, if you do not take the obvious cases (say, Gentile was a minister for Mussolini), should be carefully substantiated. Controversy surrounding the "Heidegger case" 29 show that prosecutors often resort to obvious overexposure. When it comes to Jung's "presidency", this is obvious. Before such prosecutors, the question should be posed: if a criminal regime rules in a country, then should scientists, writers, and cultural workers break all ties with their colleagues living and working in this country? How many then "accomplices of Stalinism" can be found among Western cultural figures, and not necessarily Marxists? In the case of the Nazi regime, the selectivity of W. Heisenberg, who worked on the atomic bomb for Nazi Germany, is striking, these accusations are somehow bypassed, but immediately after the war even G. Hesse was accused of "complicity", since his books were published in Germany. The fact that Jung was the target of a propaganda campaign cannot be called an accident - they simply settled completely different scores with him.
In the works of the 1920s and 1930s, Jung addressed an extremely wide range of problems in psychotherapy, psychology, cultural studies, and religious studies. He travels the world, lectures at the Zurich Higher Technical School, conducts seminars for a small group of followers, founded the Swiss Society for Practical Psychology in 1935, receives honorary titles at Harvard and Oxford. But the main area of his activity remained medical practice, and the doctrine of the archetypes of the collective unconscious was formed as a result of the experience of treating patients. Of course, introspection, a collision with one's own unconscious, played a significant role. Freud's psychoanalysis also bears traces of Freud's introspection in 1895-1896. For Jung, this “confrontation with the unconscious took about 6 years. A psychotherapeutic theory, method and technique were developed on the basis of this immersion and out of it. The central concept of his psychotherapy is “individuation”. It is used by Jung in a different sense than in medieval theology. We are talking about the movement from fragmentation to the integrity of the soul, about the transition from the "I", the center of consciousness, to the "Self" as the center of the entire mental system. This movement usually begins in the second half of life. Among Jung's disciples, his words, which are not written down anywhere, circulate: "The natural end of life is not senile dementia, but wisdom." He considered the youthfulness of the elderly, which had become so characteristic of Western culture, to be regrettable. This is as unnatural as the old age weariness of youth. From the moment of maturity and up to about 35-40 years old orientation towards the outside world. career, power, family, position is quite natural. But at this critical age, questions arise about the meaning of all this activity, religious and philosophical reflections on, life and death. Most of Jung's patients belonged to this age group, and neurotic symptoms very often were caused precisely by unresolved conflicts of an ideological or moral order. It is clear that Jung, when dealing with simpler cases when there was no need for a comparatively long analysis 30 , did not "shoot at sparrows with cannons." But where it was necessary, with the help of a doctor, "regression" was carried out, i.e. immersion in the depths of the unconscious, so that then, after it, the "progression", movement to the external world, better adaptation to it can be realized again.
Often a neurosis arises precisely because the process of individuation has spontaneously begun, the unconscious has connected, "compensating" for the one-sidedness of consciousness. The natural goal of the psychic system is to move from the “I” to the center, to the “Self”, symbolized in dreams by a circle (mandala), a cross, a child, etc. images.
But first, the neurotic is confronted with other archetypes. "Amplification", the expansion of consciousness, goes through a series of stages 31 .
Jung himself in the last decades of his life became a "wise old man from Kusnacht." After a trip to India in 1938, he was ill for a long time, and in 1944, after a broken leg, he suffered a severe heart attack. Jung was visited at this time by visions that began precisely in those moments when he was close to death. His soul, leaving the body, wandered around the world space, he saw the globe from space, and then ended up on an asteroid. After passing through the narrow entrance into the celestial body, he ended up in the temple, but then an image appeared in which the features of his attending physician merged with the features of Basileus the priest from the island of Kos, where the temple of Asclepius was located - Jung was instructed to return back to Earth. True, for another three weeks he could not come to his senses - the world seemed after being tested by some kind of dungeon. There were other visions of such intensity that they seemed to be true reality. Here past, present and future merged, different laws reigned here. These visions not only finally convinced him of the immortality of the soul, but also served as an impetus for later works, which had a predominantly religious and philosophical character.
Jung's vigorous activity continued until 1955, until the death of his wife, which shocked him. During these years, Jungianism took shape as a movement. Earlier, Jung opposed this in every possible way, fearing that his ideas would become some kind of dogma for the sect of the "faithful", as had happened earlier in Freudianism. He was extremely reluctant to go to the creation of the CG Jung Institute, but his students were able to persuade him. He himself did not take any part in the work of the institute, entrusting all the affairs to the first rector of the institute K. Mayer and the Council (curatorium). The only thing the students insisted on was the obligatory participation of a member of the Jung family in the curatorium. First, it included his wife, Emma Jung, then daughters (now his youngest daughter, Helene Herney-Jung). Jung's fears came true to a certain extent: the institute gradually lost the features of a club, in which interested researchers gathered for discussions. Apparently, such a development was inevitable - the flow of people wishing to receive training was increasing, primarily from the USA and England. In England in those years, the Journal of Analytical Psychology began to be published, in the USA Paul and Mary Mellon, who knew Jung personally, founded the Bollingen Foundation - this foundation financed the publication of Jung's Complete Works on English language... Jung's interest in Gnosticism has served the researchers of this late non-antique doctrine in good stead. One of the codes discovered in Nag Hammadi disappeared somewhere in Cairo. The search, which lasted for several months, led K. Mayer to Brussels, where the code was found in the station safe. One of Jung's wealthy and influential patients managed to ransom him and transfer
institute. The ancient document, named "Jung's Code", was passed on to ancient scholars and published in 1955.
Jung was completing his studies in alchemy in those years, but he was increasingly attracted by the problems of theology, as well as parapsychology. Jung's gnostic theology is expressed in the book Answer to Job, where the evolution of the Iuleo-Christian God is traced - this originally angry and standing "on the other side of good and evil" God gradually in dialogue with man and through him passes to consciousness and kindness. The movement begins with Nova's question. "Can a man be justified before God?" - and ends with the incarnation of God, the birth of Jesus Christ. God becomes the bearer of mercy, justice, love, while his dark, angry face recedes into the unconscious. But this side of the HP deity has disappeared: the right hand of God is Christ, the left is Lucifer, the Antichrist. It is interesting that of the Russian religious thinkers who talked about God-manhood and humanity at the beginning of the century, Jung knew only Merezhkovsky 32 ; some of his ideas through K. Kerenyi entered earlier in T. Mann's tetralogy "Joseph and his brothers". Of course, Jung is distinguished from all theologians, even the most unorthodox ones, by the doctrine of the unconsciousness of the deity and the emphasis on the dark, terrible side of man. Jung's prophecies about the "day of the wrath of the Lord", the kingdom of Antichrist, the further transition from the Christian Zone (Pisces) to another Zone. standing under the sign of Aquarius, of course, are far from unorthodox theology. In Jung's correspondence in the 1950s, theological issues occupy the most important place.
Jung's interest in parapsychology, astrology, and alchemy arose at the very beginning of his career. From the belief in the existence of "spirits" he moved on to explain occult phenomena using the theory of the collective unconscious: "spirits" became "projected unconscious autonomous complexes." Important amendments are made to the works of the 1940s and 1950s, since Jung is now convinced of a “transpsychic reality” in which the laws of guilt and space-time determinants lose their relevance. Together with the renowned physicist Pauli Jung publishes the book "Explaining Nature and the Psyche". In it, firstly, the idea is carried out that archetypal images play a significant role in the speculations of natural scientists. Jung previously held the idea that Platonic and then Cartesian ideas are the expression of archetypes. In other words, inner images are projected by thinkers onto the outer
the world, and the order that is found in space is a manifestation of internal order. Kant's a priori categories, and then the concepts of modern natural science, lost the plastic symbolism of Platonic ideas. but they still have their origin from archetypes.
Second, Jung describes the effect of "synchronicity" in this book. These are "acausal semantic relations", when an event in the inner, psychic world corresponds to an event in the outer. This kind of phenomenon he had more than once observed himself; in addition, it is precisely the "synchronic" phenomena that are described in the ancient Chinese "Book of Changes", the researchers of parapsychology encounter with them. Most often, such phenomena occur when the collective unconscious is connected. Parapsychological phenomena especially often make themselves felt in critical situations, when the consciousness cannot cope with them and the compensatory function of the unconscious "turns on". In this regard, amendments were made to the theory of the collective unconscious, which are generally philosophical in nature. Archetypes have a "psychoid" character, ie. and not purely mental and not only physical. That is why the physical effects produced by archetypes are possible. In archetypes, the opposition of matter and consciousness loses its significance - we are talking here about archetypes, and not about archetypal images as mental facts. A number of parapsychological phenomena - sentiment du deja vu, clairvoyance, telepathy, telekinesis - are interpreted by Jung as synchronic phenomena that go beyond causal relationships, violating (for example, clairvoyance) the physical laws known to us. Synchronicity is defined by Jung as "a temporary coincidence of two or more non-causally related events endowed with the same or similar semantic content" 33 ... Temporal coincidence is not astronomical simultaneity: temporal differences are largely subjective; in the case of a foreseen future, the time distance between two events can be calculated in years. There were other cases when, for example, two English teachers in 1901 in Versailles park fell into a hallucinatory state and became, as it were, witnesses of the events of the French Revolution. Jung gave another example of synchronicity from his own psychotherapeutic experience. One patient spoke with excitement of an unusually vivid dream with a golden beetle, and at that very moment the golden beetle sat down on the window pane. Each of these events - the dream and the movement of the beetle - have their own causality, and the connection between these two series is not causal, but semantic. Life, Jung believed, is much more complex than all our theories, and moreover, so changeable. To believe in the last word of science, which will become outdated tomorrow, is nothing more than a prejudice. In Jung's later works, there are many statements about the limitations and sometimes about the insignificance of scientific knowledge. The last
truths are expressible only symbolically, quantitative methods of science will do nothing here. Worse, science, "Satan's favorite tool," has led, together with technology and industrial civilization, to a monstrous impoverishment of the inner world of people.
The assessments of this civilization in Jung's later writings are rather pessimistic. In his work "The Present and the Future" (1957), he directly writes about the threat to the individual from the outside modern society... The communist threat itself is not terrible. Although there are subversive minorities in Western society who use their freedoms to propagate their destruction, they have no chance as long as the rationality of a spiritually stable segment of the population stands in their way. By the most optimistic estimate, this is about 60% of the population. But this stability is very relative. “As soon as the temperature of affects exceeds the critical limit, the powers of reason fail, and slogans and chimerical dreams, a kind of collective obsession that quickly develops into a psychic epidemic, are torn in its place. At this time, those elements of the population gain influence that, under the rule of reason, eked out an asocial and barely tolerant existence " 34 ... Such persons are not at all rare curiosities outside prisons and insane asylums. According to Jung, for every visibly insane person (there are approximately 1% of the population in all developed countries) there are 10 people with latent psychosis. Most often they do not come to a fit of insanity, but with outward decency they are not completely normal. They are dangerous precisely because the spiritual state of these people corresponds to the state of a group possessed by political or religious passions, prejudices or fantastic dreams. As soon as society gets into a crisis period, as soon as the masses get excited, and it turns out that such individuals are best adapted - in fact, in such a situation they feel "at home." Their chimerical ideas, their fanatical bitterness find their ground here. There is a mental infection of the rest - after all, the same forces are dormant in their unconscious, the madmen are just a little closer to this flame. Should the forces of the rule of law weaken, and this mental epidemic leads to a social explosion, and then to the tyranny of the worst.
The experience of our century largely confirms these observations of Jung - in all social movements, whatever color they may be, there is a great participation of people with obvious psychopathological deviations, who sometimes become "leaders" of a national or district scale. This course of events is also facilitated by the mass society, depriving everyone of individuality, the social mechanics of the state, the transformation of the church into one of the instruments of management and control. In Western society, people have become "slaves and victims of the machines that they conquered for them.
space and time" 35 they are threatened by the military technology they nurtured; they are alienated from meaningful labor and spiritual tradition, they have become cogs of a huge machine. The mass man is irresponsible, he does not even understand what he owes his relative prosperity to, and puts his fantastic dreams in the first place, which are gradually paving the way for tyranny and spiritual slavery. In a word, Jung is far from optimistic about the prospects of Western civilization. This is also noticeable in the alarming and even apocalyptic remarks scattered throughout his writings and letters of recent years - the "day of wrath" is approaching, which will not spare either the sinner or the righteous. In his political views, Jung was quite conservative, was hostile not only to social democracy, but also to that version of the "society of general, prosperity", which gradually began to form in the United States and European ^ countries in the 50s. For all the accusations of irrationalism and spiritualism, he was a supporter of the political rationality of the 19th century. Modern social sciences seemed to him to be new instruments of the social mechanics that the bureaucracy, which is becoming omnipotent, paving the way for tyranny, is using for its own purposes. However, as he himself admitted in one of his letters (to the Russian émigré philosopher B.P. Vysheslavtsev), modern sociology was practically unknown to Jung. He looked at social processes as a doctor who reads the symptoms of a disease based on individual signs, then as a religious thinker trying to comprehend the divine will. Astrology also played a certain role in his reflections on the fate of Western civilization: the Christian Aeon, standing under the sign of Pisces, is coming to its end.
Jung continued to work in old age. At the age of eighty he managed to finish a book on alchemy, on which he had been working for over thirty years. The insistence of the students led to the fact that he began to write his autobiography, but then he dropped it and began to simply remember aloud, and his secretary A. Jaffe made the notes of the conversations in the chapters of the book. The last book- "The Man and His Symbols", in which Jung owns a large first section (the rest are written by students), was written when he was almost 85 years old. After a long illness, he died in Kusnacht on June 6, 1961.
Talking about the influence of Jung's ideas, one could compile a long list of writers, artists, filmmakers, historians of religion, mythology, art. However, psychotherapists trained in one of the educational institutes of the International Association for Analytical Psychology can rightfully call themselves Jungians. The central one is the C.G. Jung Institute in his homeland, in Kyusnacht, where about 400 students from different countries study at a time. There are similar training centers outside Switzerland: in Italy there are two
there are about a dozen such institutes in the USA. They accept people with higher education and considerable funds (training is quite expensive), but doctors and psychologists predominate among them, since in the USA and in most European countries self-proclaimed "healers" are not liked and only holders of relevant diplomas can become practicing psychotherapists.
Although the Jungian Association is noticeably inferior to the Freudian in its number, the Association of Analytical Psychology has thousands of members, has foundations, centers, journals, and publishing houses. Jung's close disciples speak with a certain bitterness of the "spirit of commerce" or "Americanization" of analytical psychology, recalling the times when an equalizing narrow circle of initiates gathered around Jung, and the doctrine itself was not confused with a considerable number of ideas and methods that were not directly related to the works of the founder.
Indeed, modern analytical psychology deals with problems to which Jung did not pay much attention. As an example, we can cite the “analysis of children” (Kinderanalyse), originally developed by A. Freud and M. Klein, but not by Jung, who considered the difficulties of children to be the mental problems of their parents. Today, up to half of the students of the CG Jung Institute study at the Kinderanalyse department. Another example is the enormous feminist literature produced by Jung's followers: for all his interest in the female soul 36 he was not a supporter of feminism. Of course, one can regret the bygone "heroic" era of analytical psychology, but the expansion of scientific topics speaks of the development of theory and practice, while the transformation of a small circle into a solid social institution with all the attendant shortcomings (there is also its own "Jungian bureaucracy"!) Testifies to the viability this direction of psychology and psychotherapy.
Jung parted with most of his early followers at the turn of the century without much regret during the First World War. Of these, only Tony Wolf not only remained faithful to the teacher in difficult times for him, but also had some influence on the development of "complex psychology" (as analytical psychology was initially called). In the 1920s and 1930s, Jung acquired a considerable number of students, among whom there were many Anglo-Saxons. Since then, not only Zurich, but also London has become one of the most important centers of Jungianism. The first group of researchers and medical practitioners is being formed, which organizes (despite the considerable resistance of Jung) the association and the CG Jung Institute. To such his associates as M.-L. von Franz, I. Jacobi, K. Mayer,
J.L. Henderson, E. Neumann, A. Jaffe, owns a significant number of works both on clinical psychology and on mythology, history of art, literature, religion. The narrow circle of closest collaborators included some writers, for example L. van der Post.
Following this first generation of Jungians came those who no longer studied with the founder himself, but underwent preparation in the existing educational institutions. These at least two generations are characterized not only by the expansion of the subject matter, but also by the complete absence of "polemical fervor".
The institutionalized doctrine no longer needs to defend and justify its right to exist, Jungians calmly coexist with Freudians in some German psychoanalytic institutions, they use both data from various human sciences and psychotherapeutic methods of other schools. In contrast to orthodox psychoanalysis, Jungianism knew no "excommunication", although disputes and conflicts did occur. This liberal spirit is well expressed by one of the most prolific British Jungians, A. Storr: “I received training in both general psychiatry and as an analyst in the Jungian school; therefore, I approach psychotherapy in terms of the training I have received. But I am not such a doctrinaire as to imagine that my point of view is the only one possible. I know very well that my colleagues, for example, the followers of Freud and Klein, get with their patients results that are no better and no worse than my own. " 37 ... Among the readers and admirers of Jung there are a considerable number of lovers of astrology, alchemy and other "secret sciences", but there are not so many of them among psychotherapists, who in general often question the master's religious insights and prophecies.
To date, several trends have emerged, which one of the authors published in this book, E. Samuels, called "post-Jungian". Although I frankly dislike the term itself - all current "post-" current analytical psychology, one cannot be limited to the works of its founder.
This book comes to the Russian reader with a great delay: it was conceived, and mostly prepared, five years ago, when there were only a few translated articles by Jung. It still did not have time to become obsolete, because, in addition to "unpublished works (and a small number of letters) of Jung, it includes the works of representatives of modern analytical psychology. Analytical psychology is developed by numerous members of the scientific community, open enough to combine Jung's fundamental ideas with theoretical developments and methods of other schools.
==40
Having become a "paradigm" of the theory and practice of thousands of followers, Jung's teaching, perhaps, not only gained much, but also lost something - the poetry of intuitive insights is increasingly being replaced by the prose of inductive conclusions, students of the C.G. Jung Institute often write boring and banal dissertation, striving only to obtain the coveted diploma. But such is the fate of every scientific school, which has become both a special institution and an intellectual tradition. Only in this way are big ideas preserved, and the role that Jung's teachings continue to play in world culture is largely determined by the daily activities of new generations of his followers.
A. Rutkevich
Carl Gustav Jung
Articles from different years
For those who have not studied psychology, it often seems that chaos reigns in psychology and that all the classics of psychology dispute each other. One often hears stupidity - they say, there are so many opposing points of view in psychology that none should be taken seriously.
It's not like that at all. With all the variety of approaches, psychology is built by psychologists together and each direction makes its own contribution to this.
If you are far from psychology, but you are interested in it and you are afraid to get lost in its wilds, a simplified diagram can help you.
There are four conditional directions in psychology:
1. Behaviorism
2. Psychoanalysis
3. Gestalt psychology
4. Humanistic psychology
All directions do not deny, but complement each other.
Behaviorism views a person's personality as a set of HABITS.
A person like Pavlov's dog (the founder of the direction) gets used to react and act in a certain way. His habits are related to his past experiences, and new experiences arise from his habits.
When you read that you need to gradually, gradually retrain yourself, develop good habits and give up harmful ones, you, one way or another, touch the behavioral methods, which are based on learning.
Do other areas of psychology deny learning? Of course not. They just reveal some of the difficulties that arise along the way.
For example, psychoanalysis draws attention to the fact that not everything in his behavior a person is able to realize and even just notice. Not everything in a person is rational and practical, since his sphere of drives is controlled by the unconscious, which is formed almost without the participation of his consciousness.
Psychoanalysis considers personality as a set of PSYCHOLOGICAL PROTECTORS.
He does not argue with behaviorism that a person is a set of habits too, but he believes that the main key to character is in mental protection.
In the unconscious there are repressed desires and encrypted fears, which cannot be simply brushed aside. Therefore, psychoanalysis considers its task to study not so much behavior as unconscious motives, and considers behavior as a consequence.
Gestalt psychology does not object to either the basic tenets of behaviorism or the basic ideas of psychoanalysis.
However, if psychoanalysts and behaviorists emphasize the analysis of individual details, gestaltists are engaged in synthesis. They believe that to dismember mental phenomena is to miss the main point.
From the point of view of Gestalt psychology, a person is a part of an integral living SYSTEM.
Personality behavior depends on the context of the circumstances. The personality is influenced by the field.
If behaviorists and psychoanalysts view a person mainly as a relatively closed system, gestaltists emphasize that a person is constantly being influenced and influenced by changing forces, from within and without. A person exists in the field and changes in the field change his state and behavior.
As you can see, behaviorists, psychoanalysts, and gestaltists work together to paint a complex picture of mental life, using their own tools and clarifying those points that others have missed.
Humanist psychologists do the same (the division is conditional, some classics can be attributed simultaneously to different directions, which is logical).
Studying the works of colleagues, they noticed that their predecessors are missing important things. Behaviorists mainly analyze habits and learning, psychoanalysts - psychic protection and childhood traumas, gestaltists - fields, energy and figures, but they say little about a person's desire for self-realization.
From the point of view of humanists, a person is a unique subject of WILL.
It was the humanists who started talking about proactivity. This does not mean that a person should not be studied as a result of habits, psychic protection and field forces, but should be considered exclusively as a free creature. It would be a big lie, a person is not completely free, he depends on many factors that influence him. But one of these factors is his own will, his proactivity, his desire for self-realization.
Please note that none of the areas should be missed if you want to have adequate knowledge about psychology. All directions, as parts of a house, rely on one another and together build this house.
Many more new directions will arise, and all of them will continue to refine our understanding of human nature.
W. James "Psychology" (1892)
Z. Freud "Introduction to Psychoanalysis" (1916)
A. Adler "Practice and theory of individual psychology" (1920)
E. Berne "An introduction to psychiatry and psychoanalysis for the uninitiated" (1947)
A. Maslow "Motivation and Personality" (1954)
G. Allport "The Formation of a Personality" (1955)
R. May "Love and Will" (1967)
A. Lowen "Depression and the Body" (1973)
What do you read about psychology? There is no need to list everything, what was especially impressed, did you remember?
People who have never dealt with psychology before may think that chaos reigns in this science, because many classics constantly challenged each other's theories and continue to do so. In fact, even with a considerable number of different approaches, psychology develops with the help of the joint work of specialists, and classical representatives have managed to supplement each direction with their own contributions.
Many authors of books on psychology make it possible to obtain accessible explanations of complex concepts in a simple form. Experts competently present people with information about the peculiarities of human nature, which, as you know, is very contradictory and unpredictable. The classics are considered the first psychologists who managed to sort out many problems and describe methods for solving them.
Most of the specialists of this plan allow you to understand such concepts as personality, discover special motivational ways, get acquainted with the psychopathology of everyday life, and so on. Moreover, there are special books on psychology in which the classics describe the peculiarities of the development of children, the foundations of a happy marriage and present useful lessons that contribute to a positive outlook on life.
Why are some writers considered geniuses in the world of classical psychology? Because they managed to do something extraordinary and supplement science with discoveries that were innovative for a certain time. The results of the work of such people formed the basis for the formation of the very scientific direction of psychology and are beyond doubt. Of course, today new luminaries appear who look at the development of science from a different point of view, but the classics made it possible to lay a powerful foundation for psychology.
Many people today are increasingly discovering books of the above direction. The time has already passed when such literature was treated with prejudice and without much trust. Today, everyone decides for himself which advice of experts to listen to, and which not, and indeed useful information is never superfluous.
The increase in the popularity of such literature was also facilitated by the fact that now there is no need to save up funds for expensive printed books, because they can be downloaded for free and without registration on our website, choosing among the most famous formats epub, fb2, pdf, rtf and txt. The portal also allows you to read the work of interest online, without having to download the file to your device.
