The principle of determinism. Determinism is a natural dependence of mental phenomena What is determination in psychology

PSYCHOLOGY AND PEDAGOGY

V. V. Kazanevskaya

doctor of Philosophy, Professor, Tomsk

The study of the category of "determination" in the general scientific and philosophical aspects (as a causal relationship), the concept of mechanical determinism of Laplace in the social aspect (identification of causal goals) pursued the main goal - to isolate causal chains from the seeming chaos of historical events. In modern Western sociology, one of the leading places is occupied by the concept of "technological determinism", representing the progress of mankind as a result of the rapid development of science and technology.

The lack of such generalized and therefore simplified concepts of determination in the course of scientific research was discovered quite early. The positivist philosopher D.S.Mill (1806-1873) expressed the idea of \u200b\u200bthe multifactorial nature of determination.

Bypassing many mediations in the development of this thought, one can immediately go on to the assumption that in the process of the study of determination, the initial ideas about the cause-and-effect relationship were ideas about a linear cause-and-effect relationship; and it was only with the development of these studies that the idea arose about the possibility of structured connections, about the structural nature of these connections. As a matter of fact, such a train of thought is inherent in any research, when one moves from the idea of \u200b\u200blinear relationships to the study of more complexly organized relationships, that is, to the study of structured relationships.

A significant place in the development of concepts of structured relationships is occupied by the so-called system concepts. Systemic representations, as a rule, are based on a certain system of concepts, which presupposes certain connections. Systemic representations at the initial stage of development were called the systems approach, the essence of which is that the object under study is considered as a system. At the same time, it is obvious that the matter comes down to what is meant by the system, and this is not a simple question at all. The fact is that the systemic approach, as it develops in various branches of knowledge, has turned into a vast sphere with dozens of separate theories, individual fundamental principles manifested in various branches of knowledge, some very popular concepts that are "included" in various branches of knowledge, etc. Therefore, at present, the system approach can be understood as any of the existing system concepts, or principles, or theories, and their choice will have a determinative effect on the object under study.

In this article, not a categorical general theory of systems will be applied as its systemic basis, but a psychological theory, in terms of which the problem of mental determination is discussed - this is an integral theoretical psychology of personality.

If we continue somewhat the logic of the development of ideas about the structuredness of the connections of the external world, then we come to the assumption that different objects are inherent

and different link structures and different elements that connect those links. Obviously, this is where the determination of objects begins, that is, the general contours of the determination of an object depend on the choice of a theory for its description, if there is a theory, or on the development of an appropriate theory, if the theory has not yet been developed. As such a general psychological theory, as mentioned above, this article adopts the integral theoretical psychology of personality.

Thus, the determination of any object can be considered at its various levels and in a more or less generalized form. The determination of an object can mean causality as such, or general methodological principles, or, finally, one or another theory. As you know, the determination of a personality problem in conditions of an abundance of psychological theories of personality can be based on any of them, and then in each case a different picture will be obtained.

In this article, we are talking about the intrapsychic determination of the personality, ideas about which are developed as part of the integral psychology of personality.

According to the provisions of the integral psychology of personality, the human psyche can be represented by two components - objective and subjective. Both components have a determining function, but the processes of determination look different in them. This article discusses the problem of mental determination in its subjective aspect. the concept of determination is important for the psychology of individuality, for differential psychology, for the psychology of the subject. The general statement that we put forward from the very beginning of the discussion: the difference between people consists, first of all, in their different determination. The theoretical idea of \u200b\u200bthis article is that the principle of determinism should take its place in the study of personality psychology. The article discusses the question of what this role is, in what concepts it is expressed, in the solution of what tasks it will find its constructive application, etc.

The concept of determination can be found in various fields of knowledge. Without pretending to fully cover this issue, we will focus on the field of sociology, since the closest to the topic of this article are the development of this concept in the field of sociological sciences. It should be noted that this concept plays a much larger role in sociology than in psychology. Therefore, the experience of developing the concept of determination in the field of sociology may be applicable in the field of psychology.

This is not to say that the concept of determination is not applied in modern psychology. Determination as a principle of causality, determination as a statement of a theoretical plan, etc. However, this concept is used in modern psychology in the most general sense.

The concept of determination itself has a large scale and in each case, depending on the level of its location, it has its own separate content. We can say that this concept can be used in its various statuses, from more general to strictly specific. Therefore, we have to talk about determination not only in its general sense, but also in its specific meaning. In this article, we are not talking about determination in general, as a principle, but about specific determination-determination at the level of the inner psyche, and this determination has a number of specific expressions, specific knowledge. We are talking here about psychic determination, the determination of the psyche. In the monograph, this problem, as part of other theoretical problems of personality psychology, is discussed and substantiated as a whole, on the basis of the principle of nature. This article is devoted specifically to the concept of determination, the content of personal mental determination. The main provisions of personal mental determination are as follows:

The personal level of the psyche has its own intrapsychic functioning; this means that a person not only reacts to stimuli and fulfills

needs, but it also has its own mental functional needs, the implementation of which in a functional form constitutes the inner mental life; it is emotional functioning, mental functioning, volitional functioning; in a similar way, that is, functionally, the personal properties of the categorical composition of the personality, which constitute the most important personal determination, are manifested;

Structural personality determination is carried out through the mechanisms of the formation of associative formations and is the most important reason for the subjectivity of the personality structure;

Constant determination is completely subjective and individual.

Thus, the concept of determination is in integral psychology the main exponent of the individuality of each person, the difference between each particular person and all others. Further, these basic provisions of personal mental determination are considered in somewhat more detail.

It should be noted about the terms "mental" and "psychological" that their difference may play a large role in a certain context, but in this article the term "psychological" will be used only when it comes to psychology, and not about psyche. In cases where the psyche is spoken of, the term "psychic" will also be used. Therefore, the determination of the properties, states and functions of the psyche will be called mental determination, the role and significance of these concepts for psychology will be called psychological.

The basis for the interpretation of all concepts and the entire content of the article, as already indicated above, is the integral theoretical psychology of personality. This theory has its own distinctive features, some of which will be mentioned in this article. One of them is the concept of mental functioning, which can be called internal and which belongs to the personal level. This mental functioning constitutes the mental determination of the personality. The determining role of mental functioning, according to the provisions of integral psychology, is that the very fact of functioning and the main composition of mental functioning processes is common, inherent in "personality in general", but as for the specific content and constants of these general functions, they are individual, personal, as a personalalog might say; they are personal, subjectively personal, as a categorical psychologist would say, based on the concept of an integral categorical psychology of personality.

It is precisely the properties of personal determination, individual determination of an individual personality that make it possible for integral psychology to speak not about the psyche in general and not about a person in general, but about a given, specific person, a given specific personality, that make it possible to "calculate" a personality. Note that this problem and its formulation constitute not only an unsolved, but also not formulated task of personality psychology. We also note that the term "determination" is absolutely necessary for the formulation of this problem, that it directly answers this problem and makes it possible to discuss and solve it.

Further, the main forms of functioning - the functioning of will-activity (activity), the functioning of the emotional and the functioning of the intellectual - act as personal determinants. All types of functional determination are concretized for a specific person. The most important task is to introduce into functional determination ideas about the forms of functioning, about the forms of mental movement. The main one is the form of motion "difference-identity" or oscillatory motion.

The most important determinant is also constant determination. the listed personality determinants underlie a holistic individual determinant

the nation of a particular personality, which fully explains the differences between individuals - as objective and inevitable.

But that's not all. Among the mental mechanisms that ensure the individuality of the individual, we see the mechanism of association. It is this mechanism that not only builds associative connections, which are structural connections of the psyche, but also builds them absolutely individually. Structural connection is experienced - writes Dilthey. This means that human experiences underlie the structuring of the psyche, the individuality of which is thereby ensured. Thus, mental structure is another individual personality determinant.

As you can see, in the field of terminology of the processes of individual structuring of the psyche, the problem of the correct or incorrect formation of the personal sphere, including the emotional, mental, volitional, and personal, can be posed.

It is surprising that when discussing the phenomenon of associativity, attention is usually paid to the manifestation of associativity, to the manifestation of previous experience; the essence of the formation of an associative connection remains in the shadows. The multidimensional nature of the categorical concepts of psychology leads to the fact that from one categorical concept it is possible, and quite reasonably, to go to a dozen different concepts related to it. Thus, the phenomenon of association supported in Wundt's school the idea of \u200b\u200ba vicious circle of mental phenomena. Meanwhile, attention to the logic of the formation of an association can put this phenomenon in its proper place and give it its own psychological role and meaning.

Considering the mechanism of the formation of associative links as a way of fixing the connections of the external world, we will inevitably come to the question of how a person distinguishes the connections of the objective world from connections that express his personal experience, subjective, objectively subjective connections. It can be assumed that at first the personality perceives all connections as subjective, while the isolation of objective connections occurs on the basis of special studies.

the psychological significance of the mechanism of associations lies in the fact that the processes of the formation of associative formations, including elements, underlie the formation of personal structures and the basis of the complete subjectivity, individuality of these structures; the subjectivity and individuality of the individual also depends on them.

Subjectivity, individuality of personality structures underlies individual differences, differences between individuals. It is the personality structures that are responsible for the composition of functional areas and for the way the personality responds.

In connection with the question of the mutual influence of intrapsychic and social determination, let us dwell only on what the concept of intrapsychic determination brings new into it.

An important issue of social determination of personality is the philosophical question of free will. As a social being, a person realizes his activities not in isolation, but in the process of interaction not only with other people, but also with society as a whole. It is society as a whole, its social institutions that have a concretizing influence on the activity and life of a person, on the form of his life, from the formation of feelings and ending with family and industrial relations. Society serves as a framework that has a concretizing influence on all manifestations of a person. How does intrapsychic determination affect this sphere? first of all - on his goal-setting. As you know, in his cooperation with society, a person consciously sets goals for his life and work. But the goals of a person, the way they are realized and the aspirations of a person are closely and necessarily consciously connected with his intrapsychic determination. Unawareness of intrapsychic determination can be the cause of general personal ill-being. For example, you-

the nature of a profession that does not meet, in terms of its emotional characteristics, a person's own emotionality, can lead him to a state of constant emotional deficit and to serious consequences. Such a situation is even more clearly manifested when an intrapsychic determinative characteristic forces a person to choose not only a form of behavior or activity, but also goals.

Thus, intrapsychic determination has a mediating, but very serious impact on social determination and social behavior. But the main thing is that intrapsychic determination has an extensive influence on all manifestations of the personality, including on the social manifestations of the personality and on it itself, that is, on its composition, structure, functions, goals, behavior, etc. the concept of intrapsychic determination, these influences have not yet been studied and it can be expected that their study will significantly deepen the understanding of social and socio-psychic mechanisms.

The meaning of the concept of determination for practical psychological work should be considered not by itself, but as part of the integral categorical psychology of personality, the features of which, as shown above, reveal the individual determinism of the personality and allow working with an individual specific person. At the same time, this theory has the means for studying the psychological properties of groups of people. The very construction of the integral categorical psychology of personality is focused on the individual personality, its description and research. This requires a description of the functional spheres of the personality - volitional - active, emotional and intellectual - according to the composition of the bases of functioning and according to the parameters of the function itself; that is, the aforementioned composition of the three functional areas is by definition individual; it must be borne in mind that not only the composition of the foundations of functioning is individual, but the structures that connect this composition are also individual; this applies both to individual structural links and to large structural formations - concepts of personality. In addition, the individual properties of the mental system "personality", as well as many other concepts of integral psychology of personality.

Literature

1. Kazanevskaya VV Systems and system laws: Categorical theory of systems. - Kemerovo: Kuzbassvuzizdat, 1992 .-- 272 p.

2. Kazanevskaya V. V. Integral theoretical psychology of personality. - Tomsk: Publishing house of Vol. University, 2000. - 526 p.

L. V. Miroshnichenko

candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Associate Professor, Head. Department of Pedagogy and Psychology Kemerovo State University of Culture and Arts

INTERACTION OF THE STUDENT AND THE TEACHER IN THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESS: NEW PROBLEMS AND TRENDS

The formation of a high-class professional who has a system of qualities required by modern society and concretized by the State educational standards of higher professional education is possible only under the condition of optimal interaction of the main subjects of the pedagogical process at the university - the student and the teacher.

The concept of determination in psychology... The individual psyche cannot be viewed otherwise than in interconnections with the diverse other, the other. The property of the mental - to be in relation to dependence on other phenomena - is denoted in modern psychology by the term "determination" or "determinability".

Historically, there have been different understandings of the determination of the psyche. All of them, as a rule, emphasize one or several aspects of this property. The psychological tradition of searching for “final” answers to separately posed questions is preserved: “What is the basic relationship between the psyche and the world?”; “What is the main connection that connects the psychic and everything else?”; “What as the main reason gives rise to the psyche?”; "Do biological or sociocultural conditions determine the mental?"; "Does the external or internal dominate the influences on the psyche?" etc.

However, with any narrow approach, the psychologist cannot, at least implicitly, not follow intuitive ideas about the complex, multifaceted determination of the mental. In his skillful solution of a specific professional problem, one way or another, various meanings of the “determinability of the psyche” will be found:

Generation of the psyche to others;

Limiting the psyche to others;

The dependence of the psyche on the other;

Conditioning of the psyche by others;

Causal connection of the psyche with another;

Developing influence of another on the psyche;

Self-determination of the psyche within the unity with the other.

With an in-depth and holistic theoretical approach, all these meanings are taken in a unified model for the determination of mental phenomena, which allows the psychologist to consciously avoid one-sidedness in his research and practical work.

The complexity of the determining connections of the human psyche is determined by its special place in the world. It develops on the basis of four universal influences: nature, the human world, individual life, the body-mental organization of the individual. Each more general determinant acts through others, which are more closely related to and immediately "forthcoming" to the individual psyche. As a rule, determination from the side of the following phenomena falls into the specific sphere of psychological research:

The human world or the world of people, things, signs, public

ideal;

The bodily - mental organization of an individual or organism, nervous

system, body age, constitution, psychosomatics, structure and type of mental properties and functions.

Individual life or dynamics of mental processes, actions,

actions and activities, as well as their results and consequences, personal biography, topology and chronology of the life path.

A particularly subtle psychological problem is the ability self-determination of the psyche or her self-movement, self-development, self-cause, I - activity and deep self-determination. Individuals have different potential for self-determination, depending on the nature of the determining influences on their psyche. For example, self-determination pours out into inner freedom, if the social world, facing the individual, is built rationally and justly, if her body is healthy and harmoniously functioning, if creativity is available to her and her achievements are widely transmitted to society. On the contrary, the potential for self-determination is reduced if social influences on a person are aggressive and destructive, if her own actions return to her with bad consequences, if her body is disturbed by many ailments, if her soul "core" actively acts in life only by the forces of drives and habits.

Types of determinant psyche connections.In the dynamics of individual life, each of its integral mental state, or "act of living" of the individual, is a complex effect of the action of many specific determinants, including the self-determination. If you try to distinguish between specific types of these determinants, using the designations PS (mental state) and D (other), you get a number of vital real relationships:

PS is generated by D;

PS is called D;

PS is affected by D;

PS actively interacts with D;

PS accepts the influence of D;

PS develops in connection with D;

PS is destroyed by connection with D;

PS is denied by D, etc.

We are talking about the relationship of two realities, where mental results can be quick and delayed, reversible and irreversible, direct and indirect, supporting or extinguishing mutual activity.

In science and literature, a rational or intuitive understanding of the polydetermination of individual mental events distinguishes psychologically subtle interpretations of human life from coarse and simplified ones. For example, let us take a fragment from the unsurpassed psychologism "The Search for Lost Time" by Marcel Proust.

Here are the multiple external and internal moments of the "other", which caused the hero's unusual state of mind - creative memory ... Given not only the sources of recollection, but also those moments that preserved, changed, strengthened this state.

“Dejected by the gloomy today and the expectation of a bleak tomorrow, I automatically brought a spoonful of tea with a piece of biscuit to my mouth. But as soon as tea with cake crumbs soaked in it touched my sky (D) , I shuddered. Something extraordinary happened in me. On me suddenly an unreasonable delight surged through (D) ... As a lover, I immediately became indifferent to the vicissitudes of fate and its harmless blows, to the iridescent rapidity of life ... Where did this omnipotent joy come from? I felt the connection between her and the taste of tea and cake (D), but she was infinitely above this pleasure, she was of a different origin. Where did she come from? What does it mean? How to keep her? ... I drink one more spoon ..., the strength of the drink is no longer the same. It is clear that the truth I am looking for is not in him, but in me (D) ... I leave the cup and reaching out to my mind (D) ... I demand from him that he make an effort and at least for a moment keep the elusive sensation. ... I remove all unnecessary things from him, bring the still not exhausted taste of the first sip closer to him and feel how something in me shudders, moves from its place (D) ... wants to surface, wants to anchor at great depth; I feel resistance and hear the hum of the spaces being overcome ...

And suddenly the memory came to life (PS) ... It was the taste of a piece of biscuit that Aunt Leonia treated me every Sunday morning in Combra, soaking it in tea ... And, like in a Japanese game, all the flowers in the garden of my childhood, all the respectable inhabitants of the city, their houses, the church - all Combre (PS) , everything that has a shape and has a density - floated out of the cup of tea. "

However, such a completeness of coverage of the determinants of mental events (thing, sensation, experience, action, thought, image, consciousness, unconsciousness)) is still the merit of artistic and literary insights rather than psychological cognition. In scientific psychology, echoes of a long-standing discussion on specific problems of determination when the psyche is taken as basically derivative, dependent, reflecting and reactive, then as emphasized independent, active, regulating, generating, creative, self-sufficient.

On the origin and content of the mental.In works on psychology, where the methodological question of "how" and "what" is given in mental phenomena is posed, a continuum of answers is found, the context of which is various theories of mental determination ... According to historically formed views, the psychic in its roots and content is:

Subjective manifestation of neurophysiological reflection of the external world, which is ideal information, a "given" of the world;

By direct extraction of information contained in the object structures of the environment, part of which is the moving, active human body;

Actualization of the a priori ideal structures of the individual (congenital "psycho-forms", archetypes), occurring when meeting, coincidence with "similar" structures of external things, situations, events;

The empirical individual self is the expression of absolute consciousness, which through its multiple manifestations in the human world reveals the essence of things;

Individual creative transcendence into the physical world of holistic models of inner spiritual experience;

Existence of the individual "self" as a manifestation and realization of the hidden potential of Being; etc.

In different concepts of determination, the mental acts as “objective,” “ideal,” “subjective,” “phenomenal,” “transcendent,” “existential,” etc.

The listed approaches in various modifications are found in the works of modern psychophysiologists, psychophysicists, holists, structuralists, phenomenologists, existentialists. Increasingly, however, in search of an essential determination of the psyche, a particular scientist resorts to explanations and interpretations of different types and levels, realizing a synthesis of methodological approaches that is natural for postclassical science.

The problem of social determination of the psyche. For the psychology of the humanitarian direction, the question of the dependence of the psychic on the interaction and mutual influence of the individual with other people is especially important. This pattern has received the designation "collectivity", "sociality", "community" of the psyche.

When it is revealed, it is usually emphasized that the determining significance for the mental life of the following relationships: an individual and a specific other person; individual and community; personality and culture; You and I; me and us.

The conclusions drawn from the study of the social determination of the psyche can be reduced to a number of provisions.

1.Sociality is an eternally lasting event, a continuously recreated relationship between two, several, many people, so that each becomes different - in - itself, and all together - the collective I; the personality is a concentrated society, and society is an extended personality.

2. The individual psychic becomes what it is only in the conditions of social life.

3. The psyche in its phenomena recreates the subjective model (image, concept, symbol) of the social world.

5. Psychic life in its dynamics is a continuous dialogue with another: the personality internally holds the other in front of itself as the addressee of its activity; it resorts to socially given and transmitted methods of actions and actions; She considers her high status in the human world to be the best result of her activity, recognition of herself by others.

6. Collecting, personifying, realizing and creatively forming in himself the social content and social ways of life, the individual develops as an active “I”; the latter possesses, according to the old terminology, a “double face”: in one it is addressed to the society, in the other - to the social - in itself.

The social, which refers to the individual mental life, has a multilevel character. We can talk about built into each other events of constant influences on the individual of various forms of social experience: the experience of human existence; the experience of people of a certain era; the experience of people of a particular culture or civilization; life experience of people of a given nation and a given ethnos; life experience of social and professional groups with which the individual identifies; family experiences and specific significant others; experience of their own life in society.

The individual psychic refracts in itself norms, customs, rituals, prohibitions, tastes, mores, manners, styles, myths, scientific ideas, artistic samples and ideals of distant and near times, people, spaces. At a certain point in time, in certain cultural and personal conditions, this refraction occurs in a special way, combining typicality and individuality.

For example, in humanity, the eternal theme of girlish chastity. In what mental and practical forms can it be implemented in the lives of specific girls?

For a modern European girl, the preservation of purity is a deep, purely personal issue, in the solution of which she is relatively free in connection with the softness of current morals. At the same time, she cannot but feel a strong tension, an ancient, secret and contradictory meaning of her own and someone else's attitude to chastity. Probably, in the experienced tension, in vague intuition or a distinct conviction, the invariants of a thousand-year experience of chaste youth are transmitted to her.

Lucrezia, the heroine of an ancient tragedy, does not hesitate to take her own life, because the enemy dishonored her.

The heroine of Beaumarchais's play, cherishing her purity, must rely in its preservation on the kindness of the master-seigneur, who has been given "the right of the first night" by the authorities.

Marie, the character of Dostoevsky, experiences her escape from home with her beloved as a mortal sin and seeks cruel punishment from her fellow villagers in the hope of atoning for the loss of purity.

The girls from Bergman's plays seek to free themselves from the existential force of the problem of chastity, seeing in it a limitation of their relationships with peers, the cause of inner constraint. However, "liberation" in casual relationships brings to life a longing for the lost, bewitching foreboding of love.

Nowadays, the individual experience of living this topic in a peculiar way recreates some of the socially fixed invariants. But psychologically, the main thing will be the uniqueness of experiences, aspirations, intentions, hopes, imagination, dreams, thoughts, actions and life situations - everything that is intertwined in the "plot" of a particular life ...

Sociality, as external to the individual, affects his mental world with varying degrees of self-subordination. Psychologists are struck by the often encountered lack of alternatives of a person's internal connection with others, when the latter skillfully dominate, filling and replacing his thinking, acting and experiencing "I". At Zh-P. Sartre has an impressive description of rigid parental determinism: “Anne-Marie, the youngest daughter, spent her childhood on a chair. She was taught to be bored, to keep upright and to sew. Anne-Marie had abilities - out of decency they were left in vain; she was pretty - they tried to hide it from her. Modest and proud bourgeois parents believed that they could not afford beauty and did not suit ... Fifty years later, looking at the family album, Anne-Marie discovered that she was a beauty. "

Social conditions, determining the sources and content of the individual psyche, cease to be a super-strong factor when they acquire a self-mediated character. A conscious attitude to social influences, an understanding of their essence, the found in oneself the possibility of choosing these influences and responsibility for this choice liberate a person from an object position in society, turning him into a subject of social life.

The problem of subjective determination of the psyche.An important event in the history of the theory of the determination of the psyche was the posing of the question of the definition of mental life by the personality of the individual and her self as the center. This determinant factor has been designated as "self-determination". As an active, life-affirming and influencing activity, she acted as "subjective determination."

An invaluable contribution to its study was subject concept, created by S. L. Rubinstein and his school. Along with many deep philosophers and philosophizing psychologists, he saw the great possibilities of people living independently, reflectively and creatively, to influence their inner world. Self-influences occur in these people as a result of the development of abilities for creative motivation, regulation of improving activity, high awareness of actions, as well as developing relationships with the environment and towards oneself. Internal changes caused by the efforts of a person to consciously create his real life are, according to Rubinstein, the main criteria for the subjective determination of the psyche.

Continuing Rubinstein's theme, we note that a person becomes the subject of his mental life in the experience of frequent living with the self - intentions for life changes, free flow of activity, free choice of strategies for activity and liberation in individual achievements. For these moments of individual freedom to be renewed, the unified action of many stable subject-forming conditions. These include, in particular:

1. Correspondence of the external conditions of life to the mental model of their use and change.

2. Planning activities as a continuum of effective life actions in the created winning life situations.

3. Inclusion in the activity with the intention to complete it in such a result, which in its qualities would surpass everything that the individual had done earlier.

4. Maintaining demanding control over actions in order to maintain progress in the development of activities.

5. Extraction and constructive resolution of contradictions of activity, due to which the feeling of self - power over actions is preserved.

6. Realization of activity at that level of tension when the experience of fullness of self-realization is not extinguished by fatigue or exhaustion.

7. Active reflection, which determines the non-dissolution of the “I” in life and its external conditions, taking a position “above” current events through awareness of oneself as a source and a point of return of much of what is happening and happening.

8. Coming to the objective and subjective completion of activity, which is externally presented as a socially accepted author's product, and internally as a new personal achievement.

9. Discernment of its future in the activity carried out, an intuitive understanding of its prospects and the duration of social attention to it.

With the psychological modeling of subjective influences on the psyche, this series of conditions can be expanded and detailed. It all depends on the degree of specificity of the professional problem solved by the psychologist.

Particularly important is the detailing of the provisions on self-knowledge and self-determination of the subject of life. The famous theses of humanistic psychology about a person's awareness of himself-living, projecting himself-into-the future, about the determination of his life formation can be expanded into the following psychological formulations.

- "I", open and generalized by the individual as an essential cause of many events in his external and internal life, acts as a meaningful and forceful basis of his subjectivity.

- “I” as a quality of a mature subject is significantly different from the “I” possessed by a person who has not separated himself from external life.

The subject in his “I” is presented with images of I - external, I - internal, I - productive, the concept of I - ideal, I - real, I - possible, as well as generalized self-experience, self-esteem, and self-attitude. These formations are lively, dynamic, open to change.

Through skillful self-knowledge, the most significant intensification of subjective influences on one's own life is achieved; This I - subjectivity man values \u200b\u200bmost of all.

In self-knowledge, a person can create himself as an active principle of life and thus resist the negative influences of the environment, the environment of life, his own bodily state, desires and feelings penetrating into the self - the world. The contradictions are given to the subject in the form of “my life problems”.

The resolution of the known contradictions - problems in favor of life development depends on the ability to grasp them during the period of inception, to understand them with rational clarity and irrational subtlety, to find ways out of them that turn restrictions into new opportunities for everything that is intertwined in contradiction.

New opportunities found by the subject in self-knowledge and problematic self-determination correspond to the eternal values \u200b\u200bof life: goodness, love, conscience, reason, health, a sense of beauty, dignity and responsibility.

The above formulations are a reconstruction of those ideas of Rubinstein, in which his concept is close to the best world traditions of philosophical anthropology. For example, in his work "Man and the World" he connects the principles of the doctrine of the subject with the name of Spinoza. At the same time, every thought in Rubinstein's writings bears the influence of classical German philosophy and literature. An obvious convergence of Rubinstein's ideas about contradictions of the subject with the reasoning of Goethe ("From my life") about Spinoza's tragic vision of the history of the human "I": "Our physical, as well as social life, our customs, habits, worldly wisdom, philosophy, religion, even many random events - everything calls us to self-denial. Much of that which is inherently inherent in us is forbidden to be discovered outside; what we need to replenish our inner essence is taken away from us ... We are robbed of what was obtained with great difficulty, and what was favorably given to us ... "

The problem of causal determination of the mentalNext, we will touch upon the old, always requiring especially subtle solutions and always difficult to solve, the problem of the causal determination of the mental. In the modern understanding, a reason is a direct source, impetus, stimulus for the occurrence or change of a certain phenomenon. In psychology, the question of causality is interesting in its life-specific statements: “what actual event caused this mental phenomenon?”; “What kind of life fact preceded this mental phenomenon as the first link in the chain of cause-and-effect relationships?”; “From what is this mental fact derived?”; "What was the direct trigger of this mental phenomenon?" etc. In answering these questions, the psychologist does not assign the status of “ultimate truths” to his conclusions; a scientifically conscientious search for the factor that most likely triggered the causal sequence of events in individual life that led to the phenomenon under study leads to these conclusions.

"Cause" in psychology is that which changes the present state of the psyche of the individual, which initiates the movement of this state, supporting, developing or destroying mental life.

In the process of a concrete psychological analysis, it is necessary to operate with an ordered theoretical knowledge about the variety of causes of a particular mental phenomenon. Can help here typology of causality in the mental sphere.

1. The reasons differ according to the "distance" from the investigation .:

a) reasons that are distant in time and space from mental effects;

b) reasons that are close to the psychic effect in time and space.

2. The reasons differ based on commonality:

a) causes-grounds, which are universal, root in individual life;

b) general causes, long acting in individual life, significantly affecting it;

c) the reasons are private or single, short-term acting in the individual life.

3. The reasons in their connection with the laws of the objective world, society and the individual differ on the basis of necessity:

a) objectively necessary reasons;

b) subjectively natural reasons;

c) random reasons.

4. The reasons can be distinguished by their external and internal carriers, spheres, environment of origin:

a) the reasons emanating from the material environment of the individual's life;

b) reasons emanating from the actions of other people;

c) reasons emanating from the states of the body of the individual;

d) the reasons arising from the actions of the individual;

e) the reasons emanating from his motives, feelings, ideas, thinking, value relationships;

f) the reasons emanating from the self-attitude and reflection of the individual.

5. Causes have a certain measure of exhaustion, completeness of their action in individual life:

a) reasons that fade away in consequences;

b) the reasons supported by the consequences;

c) reasons, intensified by the consequences.

6. The reasons have varying degrees of awareness by the individual:

a) reasons clearly perceived by the individual;

b) the reasons vaguely perceived by the individual;

c) the reasons acting unconsciously.

7. The reasons can be initiated and controlled by the individual to varying degrees:

a) the reasons created by the individual;

b) causes with directed influences of the individual;

c) reasons that are not available to the influences of the individual.

The above typologies, in their simultaneous application, serve as a subtle psychological assessment of the causality of the phenomenon under study. But understand as the reason is at work - not everything. The main thing in the psychology of causality is knowledge of the qualitative essence of the cause, that is, what precisely acts as the cause of mental changes.

Qualitative definitions of the causes are especially difficult in the case of their internal localization. Studying them, the psychologist can operate only with hypotheses. In specific research or practical situations, he sets himself questions about the nature of internal causes and, in answering them, comes to careful assumptions.

Should the specific internal causes of the analyzed psychic facts be considered as manifestations of one universal psychic property: Thought, Motive, Intention or Will? In other words, should we follow the classical tradition of Descartes - Kant - Fichte - Schopenhauer?

What value dispositions and in what correlations with each other motivate the individual in his specific mental states: evil, boredom, indifference, aggression, the intention to regress or goodness, care, impulses to truth, beauty, development?

To what extent does the individual correctly, truthfully, objectively interpret and explain the internal causes of what is happening to him, in particular, his motives, aspirations, and how does this reflexive "causal attribution" affect these reasons themselves?

What are the qualitative parameters of the individual's attitude to the life situation, where the studied psychic phenomenon arose, and could this attitude become an actively acting cause of mental changes for the better?

Fromm recommends looking for the answer to the last question in the individual's full and true awareness of the decision made in the situation about action, or freedom of situational choice. A clear awareness of the situation is, from his point of view, a decisive factor in deciding in favor of the best, not the worst. This is (1) the awareness of what is good and what is bad; (2) about the awareness of which method of action in a particular situation is appropriate to achieve the desired goal; (3) on the awareness of the forces that stand behind openly manifested desire, that is, on the awareness of their own unconscious desires; (4) awareness of the real possibilities, between which there is a choice; (5) on the awareness of the consequences that the decision will entail in this or that case; (6) the realization that awareness will not help if it does not go hand in hand with the desire to act, the willingness to take on the pain and hardships that are inevitable if you act contrary to your passions.

From situation to situation, an individual can maintain a single conscious line of life. Long-range targets are realized on the line; it is a sequence of actions and actions independently initiated and carried out by the individual. Each goal here is a long-term reason for a renewed willingness to act and act, and actions, actions are the reasons for the persistent presence of a goal in the soul.

The goal must have a solid value base, for example, a man's love for a woman. M. Proust called the long-term effective striving of his hero to fulfill all the desires of his beloved woman "work to establish cause-and-effect relationships." Only in her was it possible for the hero to maintain a continuous internal connection with a dear creature, to renew the thoughts and feelings addressed to her. The very incredible complexity of this work, its fundamental incompleteness and inconsistency increased its causal potential both in the life of a man and in the life of a woman.

Maintaining an inspiring goal-cause consists in creating favorable conditions and circumstances, in building those life situations that will converge in the last impetus to the fulfillment of desire. Living this performance combines several moments: consciousness of realized forces and possibilities; satisfaction with their own activities; pleasure in sharing what has been achieved with other people; understanding of the coming life changes in their ability to be the causes of future self-activity.

In human life, constant internal causes can act, causing the desire to turn again and again to creativity, to experience amazing experiences, to penetrate with thought and passion at every moment of one's own existence, to live with the utmost intensity and fullness.

These reasons, first of all, include "a sense of the time of one's life" and death, paradoxically acting from the future, which appears to a person in "the experience of the finiteness of life." Reflection: I live this way, because every day I win back from death, causally determines many of the best individual achievements.

V.A. TATENKO. SUBJECT AND METHOD OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE:

SUBJECT PARADIGMA

From the recent history of the question of the subject of psychology. Plunging into the depths of the psyche, the human mind often lost patience with the hope of comprehending its secrets, retreated, letting go of the soul to take a break from the role of "subject", or agreed to recognize its divine origin, as well as everything that could not explain, what frightened and bewitched. However, in this case, he continued to contemplate with interest the manifestation of mental life as something internal in itself, opposed to the external world and at the same time connected with it by close ties. A person, we find in S.L. Frank, in his immediate self-consciousness - outside of any philosophical reflection - nevertheless possesses a feeling or experience of directly experienced inner being as something belonging to some completely different area than the entire aggregate objective, objective reality. This is the area of \u200b\u200binner soul life. - not as it is facing cold observation and interpretation from the outside, but as it is revealed directly from within in its very experience.

If there is no psychic reality, A. Pfender noted, then the very subject of psychology is absent. If such a reality, although it exists, cannot be scientifically cognized by man, then psychology as a science is impossible. Since extended (material) processes cannot determine non-extended (mental) processes, the latter have their own determination, G.I. Chelpanov. Therefore, the subject of psychology, in his opinion, should be the subjective states of human consciousness outside their connection with the physiology of the brain.

The definition of the subject of science has always been accompanied by a discussion about its purity. We find an example of such a "cleansing" work in relation to the subject of psychology in E. Husserl. In phenomenological research, he noted, the closest and first is the pure life of the I, the manifold life of consciousness as a flowing "I perceive", "I remember," in short, "I experience empirically," "I reproduce in the mode of non-contemplation" or “I live in free fantasy”, “I am present at this”. The concept of spirit as a subject of psychology is born through abstraction, on the one hand, from the subject of physical sciences, i.e. matter or body with which he is in connection - on the other, from the subject of social or political sciences, i.e. from the facts to the public. Spirit is not a society and not a body: spirit is the whole sum of mental facts that distinguish the individual existence of living works of nature, M.M. Troitsky. For A. Pfender, psychological science is also a refined and replenished practical knowledge of people about psychic reality. To be an independent experimental science, psychology must, in his opinion, reject any metaphysical, theoretical-cognitive and physical views as the last foundations of its work. Whether a person perceives a subjective copy of the world in himself or directly the external world itself is irrelevant for the definition of the subject of psychology. Its real object is the actual psychic world, regardless of how it arises and how it relates to material reality.

The latest version of the subject of psychology is especially captivating for its "purity". However, the judgment that the psychic world can be investigated "irrespective of how it arises and how it relates to material reality" raises doubts and even some fear. Indeed, without knowing how the psyche arose, it is difficult, for example, to predict how, when and where it can disappear. If, say, God gave it, then he can also take what was given to them.

Of course, psychology must constantly take care of the purity of its "subject series". However, only by establishing the ontological connection of the psychic with other forms of being, it will be able to defend the right to its own subject of research. For example, W. James adhered to the definition of psychology as a science that deals with the description and interpretation of states of consciousness. At the same time, he noted that the interpretation of the phenomena of consciousness should include the study of both the causes and conditions under which they arise and the actions directly caused by them, since both can be stated.

Limiting its subject to the description and interpretation of states of consciousness, the process of consciousness itself, etc., scientific psychology could not but experience difficulties in explaining those phenomena of mental life that did not succumb to introspection, and if they were discovered by consciousness, they required decoding and special interpretation. This kind of problematization, constantly fueled by the evidence of clinical practice, led, as you know, to hypotheses, and soon to scientific statements, about the important role in the life of a person of the unconscious, to whom representatives of depth psychology (Z. Freud, A. Adler, G. Jung, etc. .) was prescribed the role of a system-forming factor in the interpretation of mental life, as well as the importance of the basic category in determining the subject field of psychology.

However, all kinds of extremes do not go unnoticed and always find their opponents. An understandable reaction to an absolutized, hypertrophied assessment of the role of the internal, subjective, consciousness, unconscious, etc. the development of scientific directions that determined the subject of psychology externally observable behavioral acts, reactions that can be investigated by "objective" methods. But even here it was not without extremes, when, for example, the psychology itself was excluded from the subject of psychology. J. Watson, openly stated that in his book "Psychology as a Science of Behavior" the reader will not find any analysis of the question of consciousness, nor such concepts as sensation, perception, attention, will, imagination, etc., because he simply does not know what they mean and does not believe that anyone could use them with full understanding. Therefore, for the behaviorist, psychology is that department of the natural sciences that takes human behavior as the subject of its study, i.e., all his actions and words, both acquired during life and innate.

Consideration of the history of the question of the subject of psychology can hardly have its logical conclusion. Therefore, it is reasonable to turn to those generalizations that have already been made by researchers of this problem.

At different times, within various directions, schools, branches of psychology - we find E.B. Starovoitenko - different views were formulated about the subject of this science, namely: psychology is the science of the psyche as a specific manifestation of brain functions (reflexology, modern psychophysiology); psychology - the science of consciousness (introspective psychology, phenomenological psychology); psychology studies behavior (behaviorism, non-behaviorism); psychology serves to reveal and interpret the unconscious (psychoanalysis, analytical psychology, individual psychology); psychology explores individual intelligence (cognitive psychology); psychology explores the unity of consciousness and human activity (the school of S.L. Rubinstein); psychology - the science of personality (personalistic psychology), etc.

How to relate to such an abundance of various definitions, the list of which can be continued? On the one hand, it is good when the subject of psychology is formulated on democratic principles (they say, how many directions - so many definitions of the subject) or when it is so polymodal and generalized that it can serve as a guiding star for any of the directions existing in psychology. However, on the other hand, it is important to see the line and, if possible, maintain a distance between the subject of psychology as a separate independent science and the subjects of those directions that exist and develop within it. What can we say about the relationship between the subject of the science of psychology and the subject of a specific scientific and psychological research, which, in principle, can coincide only if the aim of the latter is nothing else than the subject of psychological science itself.

The question of the determination (causation) of mental development was originally posed in philosophy. There has been a long history of dispute about which factors (driving forces) - biological (internal, natural, associated with heredity) or social (external, cultural, environmental) - play an important role in development.

Traditionally, two extreme points of view on the conditionality of development are distinguished - by nature (heredity) or by the environment (education, training).

Natural ...

Digressing from the content of certain specific behavioral acts, underlying values \u200b\u200band motives, we can try to highlight the most important factors that determine role behavior in business communication. The cognitive value of this approach is explained by the fact.

That the behavior of any individual is determined not only by a set of personal qualities, the peculiarities of a particular situation, but also by the specifics of the social environment that is not always taken into account, within which his business ...

In literary sources, the term "self-determination" is used in various meanings. Thus, they talk about cultural, national, political, religious, economic, etc. self-determination. At the same time, one cannot but agree that personal self-determination determines the development of social and professional self-determination.

Personal self-determination occurs at the level of values. Value is fundamentally timeless; asking a person an idea of \u200b\u200bthe future, she does not correlate it with the temporal ...

Putting the question about the nature of man, people at all times assumed the existence of something that makes up his essence. Erich Fromm notes on this that no one doubted the specific nature of man, but at the same time a variety of opinions were expressed about its content.

Hence, there are many definitions of man: now he is a "rational being" (animal rationale), now a "social animal" (zoon politikon), now a "skillful man" (homo faber), now a creature capable of creating symbols, finally, for everyone ...

Jack Engler is an American psychotherapist, psychologist-supervisor at Harvard Medical School, Buddhist researcher and Zen teacher.

In this article from the collection Buddhism and Psychotherapy, he writes about why meditation alone is often not enough; ten unhealthy motivations of Western practitioners; and how practice can turn from a path of liberation to a tool for strengthening the ego.

Translated by Anastasia Gosteva and Olga Turukhina

Having accumulated some experience of practice, in particular, in ...

The study of the characteristics of group and individual behavior cannot be successful without taking into account the general cultural and historical background, called the macroenvironment of the individual.

The study of the macroenvironment of a person involves the identification and analysis of objective factors that, to one degree or another, determine the behavior of an individual.

It is important to note that determination can be both direct and mediated. At the same time, the action of certain factors is ambiguous and depends both on the features ...

Using the language of synergetics itself, we can say that at least some of the sciences are today at the point of bifurcation, at the point of transition to a new level of development, redefinition of objects and methods of studying those sectors of “objective reality” that until now seemed so self-evident subjects of research.

When the view on the world order and the mechanisms of the world order changes, it is difficult to expect a calm (evolutionary) development of sciences. Scientific revolutions are inevitable - at least for ...

2.5. Poetae nascuntur, oratores fiunt
(Poets are born, they become orators)
I graduated from the Military Medical Academy. I have not taken a pedagogy course. However, I was lucky in my life: I saw "how it is done", I was lucky to listen to the speeches of brilliant teachers. When I was studying at the Military Medical Academy, its chief was the prominent Soviet physiologist, Academician L.A. Orbeli. I guess I will never forget his lecture on the adaptive trophic role of the sympathetic nervous system. For...

The structure of social systems and activities are very different in Eastern and Western countries. One can see how the destabilization of ethno-clan social systems gradually took place in the history of Europe, which manifested itself in the active mixing of peoples, in migrations and social revolutions.

The external reason for this was the accumulating mismatch of traditional ethno-clan systems with the destructible biosphere environment. This was especially active in the Mediterranean regions, which attracted masses of peoples ...

Determinism is a concept that proclaims the relationship of everything with everything. This is a style and philosophy of thinking that asserts that no events are random, but are determined by a set of specific causal (causal) factors.

Determination is the cause of a certain phenomenon and the key category of this vision of the world. The opposite of determinism is indeterminism, which does not accept a causal relationship between phenomena.

Determinism in philosophy is an assertion of the validity and normality of all events, since, due to previous events, everything happens exactly as it should.

This position is close to science, which asserts that if all the factors and causes preceding a certain event are known, then it is possible to accurately predict its occurrence; and vice versa, when something happens, it is inevitable. Everything is always determined and definite, and it is possible to establish the laws by which this or that event develops with the help of the methodology of science.

Now for examples of indeterminism. First, the principle of free will, which places responsibility for conscious behavior on the bearer of that behavior. Indeterminism in philosophy is rather a position of responsibility for one's being, which has found expression in religious directions. For example, Christianity preaches the principle of individual responsibility, and all subsequent phenomena (benefits or punishments in the next world) stem from a person's choices.

A vast field for the collision of concepts is human behavior and the idea of \u200b\u200bfree will. Preachers of deterministic views, speaking about the predetermination of certain behavior: knowing everything about a person, the slightest step becomes predictable. Indeterminists do not recognize such fatalistic views and proclaim the idea of \u200b\u200bpersonal freedom and responsibility.

Impact on psychology

As in any field of knowledge, determinism in psychology conditionally divided this science into two camps. For example, behaviorists based their concepts on absolute determinism - pandeterminism.

The principle of free will and choice formed the basis of existential philosophy and psychology. The current state of psychology is such that the recognition of scientifically grounded patterns of mental life does not prevent psychologists - especially practitioners - from abandoning the idea of \u200b\u200buniversal causality.

Psychic determinism

It is also worth mentioning here psychic determinism, a concept that became central to Freud's psychoanalysis. The latter believed that there are no random, inconsistent events in mental life. This idea formed the basis of the methodology of classical psychoanalysis, proclaiming the importance of any, even the most strange and insignificant events, for creating a complete picture of mental life.

Multideterminism

However, in the future, the idea of \u200b\u200ba single cause was revised, which marked the beginning of the development of multiple determinism or multideterminism. The key idea of \u200b\u200bthis concept is based on the fact that any mental phenomenon or form of behavior is determined by many factors, and moreover, to serve more than one purpose.

Freud himself revised his ideas of the causality of mental life. Based on his rich psychoanalytic experience, he introduces the concept of overdetermination, which contains an indication of the interconnectedness of causes that lead to a complex of symptoms, expressed in dreams (or rather, its elements), behavioral reactions, and any other component of psychic reality. At the same time, it cannot be said that this idea was new for science as a whole.

Multideterminatism is found in the geometry of flat bodies, namely at the intersection of two lines that form a point at the meeting point. Each of the lines is a cause, and a point is a phenomenon caused by these reasons. And an infinite number of lines pass through one point. Thus, the intersection of two lines is the determinant of a point, the intersection of three or more lines is overdetermined.

When applied to psychoanalysis, the term multiple determination has stuck, since one phenomenon (point) often presupposes the presence of a minimum range of causes (two lines), but not always more necessary.

Based on this principle, all mental life and phenomena are caused by many reasons. Psychoanalysis here helps to determine how a certain thought or dream images appeared in the psyche. For example, they can be both a consequence of conscious experience and appear at the intersection of many unconscious structures, including repressed desires, various ego defense mechanisms, false experiences determined by the transference, etc.

Multiple conditioning is possible because each phenomenon can carry different meanings, for example, a symptom can be a desire for attention and secondary benefit (hysteria), an attempt to satisfy needs, or a desire for submission and punishment (masochism). Each of the meanings has its own path from the unconscious to consciousness and is self-valuable, however, the multiplicity of meanings and ways to achieve the final goal create a single and unique picture of the movement-symptom.

Reciprocal determinism

The next important milestone in the development of the ideas of determinism in psychology was the theory of social cognitivism by Albert Bandura. He uses such a concept as reciprocal determinism, which means the interaction of thinking and cognitive abilities, external events and the very activity of a person, the result of which is the observed behavior of a person. It can be argued that this position is a distant relative of the idea of \u200b\u200binteraction between genes and the environment. Another name for reciprocal determinism is mutual.

A separate niche in psychology is occupied by soft determinism. A. Adler adhered to the middle position between rigid cause-and-effect relationships and complete indeterminism. According to the author's views - although he did not use this term - behavior is consistent in nature, but it is capable of changing within the limits of personal creativity.

Other types

Since the idea of \u200b\u200bconditioning and universal connection penetrated into various fields of knowledge, over time, this philosophical concept acquired specific interpretations within the framework of the sciences. Let's start with two concepts of psychogenetics and differential psychology.

We are talking about genetic and external environmental determinism. In the first case, the direct responsibility of heredity (genes) for human behavior is proclaimed, and knowledge of the genotype is the ability to accurately predict the behavior of an individual. Speaking of environmental determinism, we are talking about changing behavior only in response to changes in external conditions, regardless of heredity. A similar position is found in the teachings of Pavlov.

Today both of these positions have shown themselves to be untenable, and the source of the difference between people lies in the genotype-environmental interaction.

Cultural determinism

Another radical attempt to explain human behavior is cultural determinism. From this position, it makes sense that our behavior and emotional life is determined by culture. It is also an explanation of why social institutions and structures are formed exactly as they are here and now.

The two basic constructs for this vision of the world are religion and race, which define the cultural background. In less radical positions, the influence on the formation of culture and various geographic and climatic conditions is recognized.

Social determinism

Naturally, from individual and cultural characteristics, the question arises about the laws and reasons for the development of society. This question was of interest to many philosophers, and here the idea of \u200b\u200bdeterminism played a role.

In particular, the concepts of social determinism emerged. Many outstanding minds tried to explain the vector of social development through his prism. Within the framework of social determinism, several main branches can be distinguished:

In statistics

Finally, the last form of determinism is associated with probability theory and statistics, namely, statistical determinism. This concept is exclusively research in nature, and its idea is to confirm that some form of behavior is achieved under the influence of specific reasons with a probability higher than that of a random event. Connection hypotheses are tested in statistical studies using correlation, variance and other methods of data calculation.

Determinism and its categories

• cause - a phenomenon that leads to certain changes;
• consequence - something new, which is the result of the interaction of phenomena and caused by the cause;
• necessity is a consequence that most likely manifests itself under specific conditions;
• randomness is a consequence that can be revealed or not. It is a form of necessity;
• opportunity - something that does not yet exist, but may be;
• reality is a realized possibility.

Criticism

The problem of determinism and rigid pandeterminism is the denial of free will and the ability to arbitrarily change one's behavior. Man is governed by motives, say the determinists, and this is partly true. However, not so much in relying on his own motives, as in relying on his reason, a person decides what motives are appropriate here and now for the development of his activity.

As an example - sacrificial behavior during wars. A person as a living being has a life of his own with the highest value, but in extreme situations, the ultimate goal (for example, the defense of the Motherland) is able to displace this fundamental motive from the pedestal, and the person voluntarily goes to death, showing true free will, which is determined by an abstract goal.

lat. determinare - to determine). The philosophical concept of the objective, regular relationship and causality of all processes and phenomena of nature. Dialectic opposes indeterminism, which denies the universal character of causality. In psychology and psychiatry, causal relationships are often complex and mediated. D.'s principle is inseparable from the activity approach to the study of the psyche. In Soviet psychology, interpretations of D. as a consequence of "the action of external causes through internal conditions" [Rubinstein S.L.] and "internal through the external" [Leontiev A.N.] have been developed.

DETERMINISM

lat. determinare - to determine) is a philosophical and epistemological doctrine that asserts the presence and the possibility of establishing the objective causes of all phenomena existing in the world (in psychology - the natural and necessary dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that generate them).

DETERMINISM

the concept according to which the actions of people are determined - determined and limited by heredity and previous events in their lives. In psychology - the natural and necessary dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that generate them. Includes causality as a set of circumstances preceding the effect in time and causing it; however, the explanatory principle of causality is not exhausted, since there are other forms of determinism:

1) systemic determinism - the dependence of the individual components of the system on the properties of the whole;

2) determinism of the feedback type - the effect affects the cause that caused it;

3) statistical determinism - for the same reasons, different effects occur within certain limits, subject to statistical laws;

4) target determinism - a goal that precedes the result as a law determines the process of its achievement, etc. The development of scientific knowledge about the psyche is associated with the development of various forms of determinism. For a long time it focused on mechanical determinism, which represented the conditioning of mental phenomena by material factors on the model of the interaction of objects in mechanics, or the operation of technical devices. Despite the limitations of this view, it gave psychology the most important doctrines about reflexes, associations, affects, etc. In the middle of the 19th century. arose biological determinism, which discovered the peculiarity of the behavior of living systems (the doctrine of Charles Darwin on natural selection) and approved the view of the psyche as a function necessary for survival. If mechanical determinism represented the psyche as a side effect - an epiphenomenon, now it has emerged as an integral component of life. Later, when it was established that this component has an independent causal meaning, psychological determinism arose; however, he received an inadequate theoretical interpretation in the doctrine of a special psychic causality, ostensibly opposed to material. A different understanding of psychological determinism was formed in the works of natural scientists who showed that mental phenomena (image, reaction of choice, etc.) caused by the influence of external objects on the body are formed according to laws different from physical and biological ones, and act as special regulators of behavior. The introduction of the ideas of natural scientific psychological determinism into psychology led to its isolation into an independent field of knowledge that studies processes subject to special laws. In Russian psychology, the interpretation of determinism was put forward as the action of external causes through internal conditions, and as actions of the internal through the external. But both of these formulas are one-sided. The basic principle of explaining the human psyche from the standpoint of materialism is outlined by the proposition that by changing the real world by its objective activity, its subject itself changes. Thanks to this activity, both "external" are generated - the products of material and spiritual culture, in which the essential forces of man are embodied, and "internal" - the essential forces of a person, formed in the process of their objectification in these products.

DETERMINISM

Very loose: the doctrine that every event has a cause. In classical mechanics, it was accepted that if you know the position and momentum of each particle of matter at one moment in time, then you can, in principle, find out their position and momentum at any other point in time in the future. This position is characteristic of "hard" (or nomological) determinism. This particular point of view was somewhat "softened" with the development of quantum mechanics, in which the deepest cognizable levels of cause and effect were considered probabilistic in nature, that is, there was a shift from the concept of perfect prediction to the concept of probabilistic prediction. Psychologists! the debate is somewhat less global and much less definite. In general, this is due to the urgent attempts of existentialists and humanists to measure the "free will" with which a person can remain outside the reach of the "tentacles" of the behavioral and cognitive sciences. However, this debate may be empty. If one wants to scientifically investigate behavior and thinking, he must accept that what one does has causes and that they are ultimately knowable. The real question is whether there is some thing called "free will" that is outside the scientific analysis of causes and effects, or is it just (?) A specific mental / emotional state that itself plays a role in the etiology of behavior. Modern social scientists, if they consider this question at all, take a position that can best be described as "awkward pragmatism." That is, in their daily work, they view their subjects as probabilistically deterministic, while noting that they cannot predict accurately, since the factors of etiology (and, possibly, the principles of uncertainty variation) are still unknown, and prefer to think of themselves as in fact. acting according to their own free choice, regardless of gross determinism that diminishes their sense of their own humanism.

DETERMINISM

in psychology) (from Lat. determinare - to determine) - a natural and necessary dependence of mental phenomena on the factors that generate them. D. includes causality as a set of circumstances preceding the effect in time and causing it, but it is not exhausted by this explanatory principle, since there are other forms of D.: systemic D. (the dependence of individual components of the system on the properties of the whole), D. type of feedback (the consequence affects the cause that caused it), statistical D. (for the same reasons, various effects occur within certain limits, subject to statistical laws), target D. (the goal preceding the result as a law determines the process of achieving it), etc. D. is one of key principles of understanding the nature of conflict, conflict human behavior.

Determinism

from lat. determino - I define), the philosophical doctrine of the natural relationship and causality of all phenomena; opposes indeterminism, which denies the universal nature of causality.

Determinism

lat. determinare - to determine) - a way of thinking, guided by the following position: each phenomenon, event has a specific reason. There are different versions of determinism. 1. Nomological determinism (Greek nomos - law, logos - word, concept, doctrine) is based on the discoveries of classical mechanics, prescribing a rigid causal link between force, mass and motion of bodies. This type of determinism is inherent in some areas of psychology, which deny any chance in what happens in the inner world of a person and his behavior: psychoanalysis, behaviorism, some areas of social psychology. For example, in Russian psychology, the concept of human behavior as an inevitable and, in principle, predictable consequence of “the action of external causes through internal conditions” has become stronger. From this position, human behavior is fundamentally a foregone conclusion, it can be calculated by mathematical formulas, nowadays there is still not enough knowledge for this. In other words, it is argued that man is a mechanism, a machine, the problem is only to find out how it works and to learn how to operate it. This, for example, is the conviction of the famous surgeon N.M. Amosov. At one time F.M. Dostoevsky opposed himself to the supporters of the idea of \u200b\u200bnomological determinism, pointing out that a person is an internally free person. Quantum physics, meanwhile, has shown that even in the microcosm, Newtonian laws are not valid and that all events that take place there are causally conditioned, and nevertheless probabilistic, unambiguously unpredictable - 2. probabilistic determinism. A similar position regarding a person is held by followers of some areas of psychology, for example, existential psychology, which postulates the existence of a person's free will, which is beyond the possibility of a straightforward scientific analysis of causes and effects. If the flight of an electron is unpredictable, then it is all the more impossible to determine what, for example, a person will think about in a given situation or how he will behave in it. In other words, it is argued that a person is a unique, completely unusual, largely or mostly mysterious and so far without a known natural precedent, a self-determined creature. Science, obviously, is able to establish all factors of human behavior down to a single one, mathematically accurately describe the influence of each of them individually and in their totality, but only this person himself finally decides which factor is more important for him at one time or another, what exactly has for him the meaning and what is not, and it is not important whether this factor concerns his personal problems or his ideas about the foundations of the universe. In classical psychopathology, the principle of rigid determinism prevails, which says: any psychopathological phenomenon has a specific cause and this reason is known or can be fundamentally established, since, from the standpoint of biological psychiatry, the form of a painful phenomenon (obsession, delirium, perception deception, etc.) determined exclusively by the nature of the disturbance of neurophysiological processes. The content of painful experiences, in turn, characterizes the personal qualities of a person, it does not lend itself to neurophysiological interpretation and therefore loses its essential value for understanding the nature of the symptom and the disease as a whole. Psychiatrists brought up in the traditions of biological psychiatry ("soulless psychiatry", as it is sometimes ironically called), focus in their work on studying the symptoms of the disorder, diagnosing it, identifying the degree of readiness for suicide, indications for drug therapy and prevention of relapse of the disease, etc. etc., other, psychological aspects of work interest them to a lesser extent. Substantive, personal aspects of mental disorder sometimes fall within the competence of clinical psychology, although it is easier to separate this duality in our minds than to do it in practice, since painful phenomena, like some pre-prepared forms, are always filled with psychological content, which is also important in clinical plan. The importance of the content aspects increases significantly in the so-called borderline psychiatry, for example, in the study of personality and behavior disorders.