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The unification of Kyiv and Novgorod, which took place in 882, is considered to be the date of the founding of the Old Russian state. Its founder is rightly considered the Novgorod prince Oleg. The same prophetic Oleg, whose death “from his horse” was poetically described by A. S. Pushkin.
The beginning of Oleg's reign in Novgorod
By this time among East Slavic tribes historically two political and commercial centers emerged. In the north, such a center was Novgorod, where the Rurik dynasty had already strengthened its power. After the death of Rurik in 879, his young son Igor was formally declared prince, but Oleg remained the de facto head of the dynasty until his death in 912. He was an intelligent, far-sighted and decisive ruler who loved power and knew how to use it competently.
Kyiv
The brothers Dir and Askold were reigning in Kyiv at that time. There is no reliable information about the origin of the brothers, just as there is no correct evidence of the fact that they were brothers. There is a version that they also came from the Rurik dynasty and were his relatives, but most historians believe their legendary descendants about Kiya - the founder of the city of Kyiv.
Geographically, Kyiv occupied an extremely important position. Situated on the banks of the Dnieper, the city lay on the famous route “from the Varangians to the Greeks,” accepting tribute from all merchant ships passing by. The city was rich - the route along the Dnieper from the European northwest to Byzantium and back at that time was deservedly considered one of the main world trade routes. But there were also serious problems. Restless neighbors of the Khazars not only demanded their share of the tribute from the peaceful Slavic tribes surrounding Kyiv, preventing them from uniting, but also robbed passing trade caravans.
In this situation, the unification of Novgorod and Kyiv looked completely logical and was only a matter of time. But Oleg did not start with this. His first steps were to continue the work of Rurik - not only strengthening his own positions in Novgorod, but also Novgorod itself as the center of princely power. As a result, the tribes of the East Slavic north were conquered, and the borders of Russian lands were expanded and strengthened.
Oleg's march to Kyiv
In 882, Oleg undertook a military campaign against Kyiv, which was then under the rule of the princes Dir and Askold. The campaign turned out to be successful. The warriors of the squad, acting under the guise of peaceful traders, fraudulently managed to lure into a trap and kill Dir and Askold, and Oleg then announced to the residents of Kyiv that he was the real prince. Deception and murder were completely commonplace in those days, perhaps that is why the townspeople accepted Oleg’s power without objections and resistance.
While still on the road to Kyiv, the prince subjugated Smolensk and the Slavic tribes along this route. Oleg's foresight is beyond doubt. The capture of Kyiv and its unification with Novgorod were very important, but only separate parts of a vast plan. Oleg’s main goal was to take full control of the entire route “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” The path was long - from the rivers of the northwest, further along the Dnieper, and then along the Black Sea to the richest Constantinople, the capital of Byzantium.
Unification of Kyiv and Novgorod
Oleg's next actions were quite consistent and logical. First, he subjugated and freed from paying tribute to the Khazars the closest neighbors of Kyiv - the Drevlyans, Northerners, Radimichi and some other Slavic tribes and tribal unions. At the same time, the resistance of the Drevlyans and northerners led to the need to use force. At the same time, it was necessary to fight with an external enemy - in alliance with the Pechenegs against the Khazars and Magyars. The latter were soon forced out of the Carpathians, but the Kyiv princes would have to fight against the Khazars for a very long time.
There is every reason to believe that Oleg from the very beginning intended to settle in Kyiv, making it his capital. This decision was reasonable and natural. If Novgorod was located somewhat away from the main trade routes, then Kyiv was precisely the place where the trade routes converged. The consequence of this was that the city quickly developed also as a center of crafts and a center of culture.
Of utmost importance for the development of the Old Russian state was the cultural influence that Byzantium had on it. At that time, Byzantium was an exceptionally civilized and developed state. We should not forget that not only the East Slavic tribes, but also the nobility, and the princes themselves were pagans. It was the influence of Constantinople that ultimately led to the adoption of Christianity in Rus'. This will not happen soon, but the first step in this direction was taken by Prince Oleg, who united the Kyiv and Novgorod lands into a single state.
All these reasons, as well as the constant presence of the prince in the city, very quickly led to the fact that Kyiv began to rapidly establish itself as the main political center of the Old Russian state. Oleg understood perfectly well that in all respects it was more convenient to govern the created state from Kyiv than from Novgorod. As a result, it turned out that if initially the northern city of Novgorod was the clear leader in the process of unifying Russian lands, then southern Kyiv very quickly moved into this role. He moved forward and remained in this role for several centuries.
By 885, the formation of the territory of the Old Russian state was basically completed. Of the Slavic tribes, only the Vyatichi were not included in the state created by Oleg and for some time continued to pay tribute to the Khazars. The Vyatichi were periodically conquered by various Kyiv princes, but after that they rebelled again and remained relatively independent for a long time, until the end of the 11th century.
After the unification of Novgorod and Kyiv lands, the Old Russian state included the following Slavic tribes:
The entire unification process took only a few years. It passed very quickly and successfully, largely thanks to the decisive actions of Prince Oleg. It is quite obvious that many of the prince’s actions were thought out in advance by him, perhaps they were discussed with the participation of Rurik. Unfortunately, there is no documentary evidence of this, but according to its logic, such a course of events looks very likely.
Chronology of the unification of the Novgorod and Kyiv lands, as well as the initial stages of formation The Old Russian state looks like this:
- 879 (beginning of Oleg’s reign in Novgorod)
- 882 (Oleg’s military campaign against Kyiv, conquest of the city and unification with Novgorod)
- 883 (subjugation of the Drevlyans)
- 884 (subjugation of the northerners)
- 885 (subjugation of the Radimichi)
- 889 (displacement of the Magyars, unfriendly to Kyiv, beyond the Carpathians)
Treaty with Byzantium
Prince Oleg subsequently showed himself to be an outstanding statesman. By the beginning of the 10th century, the Old Russian state had become so strong that in 907 Oleg launched a military campaign against Constantinople. The moment was chosen very well, since at that time Byzantium was busy with the war with the Arabs and could not allocate military resources to defend Constantinople.
Things did not come to an armed clash with Byzantium - Constantinople considered it best to conclude a peace treaty on conditions that were very favorable for the Old Russian state. In 911, the terms of the treaty were confirmed, and several more articles were added to the text.
According to the concluded agreements, Byzantium paid a large indemnity, giving Russian merchants the right to duty-free trade, the right to overnight accommodation, and the opportunity to repair ships. The resolution of a number of legal and military issues was specially regulated. It is noteworthy that the texts of the agreements were drawn up in two languages - Russian and Greek.
These events showed that the unification of the Novgorod and Kyiv lands was successfully completed, and the state created was recognized as an equal political, economic and military partner even by such an influential state as Byzantium at that time.
Prince Oleg of Kiev, Oleg the Prophet, Prince of Novgorod and so on. Oleg, one of the first famous Russian princes, had many nicknames. And each of them was given to him with reason.
The most interesting thing about studying the biography of people who lived so long ago is that we are never given the opportunity to find out how everything really happened. And this applies to absolutely any facts, even names and nicknames.
Nevertheless, in the history of our country there is a certain number of documents, chronicles and other papers, written on which many historians, for some reason, believe.
I suggest not thinking for a long time about whether everything really happened, but simply plunging headlong into the farthest corners of Russian history. Let's start from the very beginning. From the origin of Prince Oleg.
Origin of Oleg
The most interesting thing is that on the Internet I found several versions of the origin of Prince Oleg the Prophet. The main ones are two. The first is based on the well-known chronicle “The Tale of Bygone Years,” and the second is based on the Novgorod First Chronicle. The Novgorod Chronicle describes earlier events of Ancient Rus', therefore it preserved fragments of an earlier period of Oleg’s life. However, it contains inaccuracies in the chronology of the events of the 10th century. However, first things first.
So, according to the Tale of Bygone Years, Oleg was a fellow tribesman of Rurik. Some historians consider him the brother of Rurik's wife. The more precise origin of Oleg is not indicated in The Tale of Bygone Years. There is a hypothesis that Oleg has Scandinavian roots and bears the name of the hero of several Norwegian-Icelandic sagas.
After the death of the founder of the princely dynasty, Rurik (according to some sources, the true creator of the Old Russian state) in 879, Oleg began to reign in Novgorod as the guardian of Rurik’s young son Igor.
Campaigns of Prince Oleg
Unification of Kyiv and Novgorod
Again, if you follow history further according to the “Tale of Bygone Years”, then in 882 Prince Oleg, taking with him a large army consisting of the Varangians, Chud, Slovenes, Meryu, Ves, Krivichi and representatives of other tribes, took the city of Smolensk and Lyubech, where he installed his people as governors. Further along the Dnieper he went down to Kyiv, where two boyars ruled not from the Rurik tribe, but were Varangians: Askold and Dir. Oleg did not want to fight with them, so he sent an ambassador to them with the words:
We are merchants, we are going to the Greeks from Oleg and from Prince Igor, so come to your family and to us.
Askold and Dir came... Oleg hid some warriors in the boats, and left others behind him. He himself went forward, holding the young prince Igor in his arms. Presenting them with Rurik’s heir, young Igor, Oleg said: “And he is Rurik’s son.” And he killed Askold and Dir.
Another chronicle, consisting of information from various sources of the 16th century, gives a more detailed account of this capture.
Oleg landed part of his squad ashore, discussing a secret plan of action. Having declared himself ill, he remained in the boat and sent a notice to Askold and Dir that he was carrying a lot of beads and jewelry, and also had an important conversation with the princes. When they boarded the boat, Oleg killed Askold and Dir.
Prince Oleg appreciated the convenient location of Kyiv and moved there with his squad, declaring Kyiv “the mother of Russian cities.” Thus, he united the northern and southern centers of the Eastern Slavs. For this reason, it is Oleg, and not Rurik, who is sometimes considered the founder of the Old Russian state.
For the next 25 years, Prince Oleg was busy expanding his power. He subjugated to Kyiv the tribes of the Drevlyans (in 883), the Northerners (in 884), and the Radimichi (in 885). And the Drevlyans and northerners paid to give to the Khazars. The Tale of Bygone Years left the text of Oleg’s appeal to the northerners:
“I am an enemy of the Khazars, so you have no need to pay them tribute.” To the Radimichi: “Who do you give tribute to?” They answered: “To the Kozars.” And Oleg says: “Don’t give it to Kozar, but give it to me.” “And Oleg owned the Drevlyans, glades, Radimichi, streets and Tivertsy.”
Prince Oleg's campaign against Constantinople
In 907, having equipped 2000 rooks (these are boats) with 40 warriors each (according to the Tale of Bygone Years), Oleg set out on a campaign against Constantinople (now Constantinople). The Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher ordered the gates of the city to be closed and the harbor blocked with chains, thus giving enemies the opportunity to plunder and destroy only the suburbs of Constantinople. However, Oleg took a different path.
The prince ordered his soldiers to make large wheels on which they placed their boats. And as soon as a fair wind blew, the sails rose and filled with air, which drove the boats towards the city.
The frightened Greeks offered Oleg peace and tribute. According to the agreement, Oleg received 12 hryvnia for each warrior and ordered Byzantium to pay tribute “to Russian cities.” In addition to this, Prince Oleg ordered to receive Russian merchants and traders in Constantinople as gloriously as anyone had ever received. Give them all the honors and provide them with the best conditions, as if he himself. Well, if these merchants and merchants begin to behave impudently, then Oleg ordered them to be expelled from the city.
As a sign of victory, Oleg nailed his shield to the gates of Constantinople. The main result of the campaign was a trade agreement on duty-free trade between Rus' and Byzantium.
Many historians consider this campaign to be fiction. There is not a single mention of him in the Byzantine chronicles of those times, which described similar campaigns in sufficient detail in 860 and 941. There are also doubts about the treaty of 907, the text of which is an almost verbatim repetition of the treaties of 911 and 944.
Perhaps there was still a campaign, but without the siege of Constantinople. “The Tale of Bygone Years,” in its description of Igor Rurikovich’s campaign in 944, conveys “the words of the Byzantine king” to Prince Igor: “Do not go, but take the tribute that Oleg took, and I will add more to that tribute.”
In 911, Prince Oleg sent an embassy to Constantinople, which confirmed the “many years” of peace and concluded a new treaty. Compared to the 907 treaty, the mention of duty-free trade disappears from it. Oleg is referred to in the treaty as the “Grand Duke of Russia.” There is no doubt about the authenticity of the 911 agreement: it is supported by both linguistic analysis and mentions in Byzantine sources.
Death of Prince Oleg
In 912, as the same Tale of Bygone Years reports, Prince Oleg died from the bite of a snake that crawled out of the skull of his dead horse. Much has already been written about Oleg’s death, so we won’t dwell on it for long. What can we say... Each of us studied the work of the great classic A.S. Pushkin’s “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” and at least once in my life I saw this picture.
Death of Prince Oleg
In the First Novgorod Chronicle, which we talked about earlier, Oleg is presented not as a prince, but as a governor under Igor (the very young son of Rurik with whom he entered Kiev according to the Tale of Bygone Years). Igor also kills Askold, captures Kyiv and goes to war against Byzantium, and Oleg returns back to the north, to Ladoga, where he dies not in 912, but in 922.
The circumstances of the death of Prophetic Oleg are contradictory. The Tale of Bygone Years reports that before Oleg’s death there was a heavenly sign. According to the Kyiv version, reflected in the Tale of Bygone Years, his prince’s grave is located in Kyiv on Mount Shchekovitsa. The Novgorod First Chronicle places his grave in Ladoga, but at the same time says that he went “overseas.”
In both versions there is a legend about death from a snake bite. According to legend, the Magi predicted to Prince Oleg that he would die from his beloved horse. After this, Oleg ordered the horse to be taken away and remembered the prediction only four years later, when the horse had long since died. Oleg laughed at the Magi and wanted to look at the bones of the horse, stood with his foot on the skull and said: “Should I be afraid of him?” However, a poisonous snake lived in the horse’s skull, which fatally stung the prince.
Prince Oleg: years of reign
The date of Oleg’s death, like all chronicle dates of Russian history until the end of the 10th century, is conditional. Historians have noted that 912 is also the year of the death of the Byzantine Emperor Leo VI - the antagonist of Prince Oleg. Perhaps the chronicler, who knew that Oleg and Lev were contemporaries, timed the end of their reigns to the same date. There is a similar suspicious coincidence - 945 - between the dates of Igor’s death and the overthrow of his contemporary, the Byzantine Emperor Roman I. Considering, moreover, that Novgorod tradition places Oleg’s death in 922, the date 912 becomes even more doubtful. The duration of the reigns of Oleg and Igor is 33 years each, which raises suspicions about the epic source of this information.
If we accept the date of death according to the Novgorod Chronicle, then the years of his reign are 879-922. Which is no longer 33, but 43 years.
As I already said at the very beginning of the article, it is not yet possible for us to know the exact dates of such distant events. Of course, there cannot be two correct dates, especially when we are talking about a 10-year difference. But for now we can conditionally accept both dates as true.
P.S. I remember very well the history of Russia in the 6th grade, when we covered this topic. I must say that while studying all the nuances of Prince Oleg’s life, I discovered many new “facts” for myself (I hope you understand why I put this word in quotes).
I am sure that this material will be useful for those who are preparing to give a report to the class/group on the topic of the reign of Prince Oleg the Prophet. If you have anything to add to it, I look forward to your comments below.
And if you are simply interested in the history of our country, then I advise you to visit the section “Great Commanders of Russia” and read the articles in this section of the site.
Prophetic Oleg is perhaps one of the most mysterious rulers of Rus'. Sage on the throne, prince-magician, priest of Perun. He successfully continued the work begun by Rurik-Falcon. Oleg united the Slavic lands in the face of an external threat - the Khazar Khaganate, the growing power of the West and the machinations of the Byzantine Empire.
According to the story “The Tale of Bygone Years”, after the death of Prince Rurik in 879, Oleg took the throne, since Rurik’s son Igor was still small. Before his death, the Grand Duke chose Oleg as his successor (according to one version, his brother-in-law, according to another, a relative) and ordered him to rule the Russian lands until the legitimate ruler grew up. Having headed Northern Rus', Prince Oleg did not sit idly by and immediately continued the work of his predecessor - the unification of the Slavic Russian lands into a single power. Less than three years had passed since the death of Rurik, when he gathered a powerful army - according to the chronicle story, it included warriors from the Varangians, Slovenes, Krivichi, Chud, Meri, Vesi and, taking little Igor with him, he moved south. He subjugated Smolensk and Lyubech (Northern Key to Kyiv) to his power, placing his governors there. The cities were taken without a fight.
After this, his army on boats moved down the Dnieper to Kyiv. Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv at this time. There is no exact information about their origin. The Tale of Bygone Years reports that these were two Varangian boyars, but not of the Rurik tribe and not of the princely family. At one time, they asked Rurik for leave to go to Constantinople (Constantinople), on the way they captured Kyiv and began to rule there. Some researchers have put forward a hypothesis that these were representatives of the local princely dynasty, descendants of the founder of Kyiv - the legendary Prince Kiya.
It was not for nothing that Oleg was called the Prophetic. He decided not to resort to unnecessary bloodshed, because Askold and Dir were not going to give up power in Kyiv just like that. Oleg resorted to military stratagem. Leaving behind most of his forces, the prince approached the city on several boats and sent a messenger to the Kiev rulers to report that visiting merchants had arrived, coming to the Greeks from Novgorod: “Come to us, to your relatives.” Askold and Dir, unaware of the trap, came to the banks of the Dnieper. But instead of the merchants, Prince Oleg came out to meet them with little prince Igor in his arms: “You are not princes and not of a princely family, but I am of a princely family,” he said and pointed at Igor. “And this is Rurik’s son!” Askold and Dir were not spared. But they buried him honorably on the mountain.
Thus, 1130 years ago, in 882, the north and south of Rus', the two main centers of the Russian land - Kyiv and Novgorod - were united into a single state. This sharply increased the power of the Russian state. Oleg decided that Kyiv would be more convenient for governing the Russian land and declared it the capital. “May this be the mother of Russian cities!” - chroniclers convey the words of the Grand Duke. This is how a state was formed, which was included in history textbooks as the Old Russian State, or Kievan Rus. The names are conditional, because the inhabitants of the state themselves called it the Russian land, Russia.
Oleg almost immediately began to prepare for further campaigns. The army was prepared for a new campaign. Already in the next 883, Oleg began an armed conflict with the Drevlyans (a union of tribes living in Ukrainian Polesie). The Drevlyans were conquered and subjected to tribute - they took a black marten from each house. In 884, Oleg began a war with the northerners and subjugated them to Kyiv. The northerners inhabited the territories of modern Chernigov, Sumy, Bryansk, Kursk, and Belgorod regions and paid tribute to Khazaria. In 885, Oleg sent envoys to the Radimichi, saying: “Who should we give tribute to?” They say: “Kozarom”. And Oleg said to them: “Don’t give it to the goat, but give it to me.” And Dasha Olgovi is a shloyag, just like a kozar is a dayahu.” The Union of Radimichi lived in the area between the upper Dnieper and Desna rivers along the Sozh River and its tributaries. Thus, two alliances of tribes - the northerners and the Radimichi - were freed from the power of the Khazars. The unions of the Streets and Tiverts, who lived from the lower reaches of the Dnieper, the Southern Bug and the Black Sea coast, in the area between the Dniester and Prut rivers, as well as near the Danube, offered more stubborn resistance to Oleg and were later included in the single state.
There is evidence, as reported by the Hungarian chronicle, that Oleg was forced to fight with the Hungarians during their resettlement to Europe. According to the Hungarian chronicle, the Hungarians defeated the Polovtsians and besieged Kyiv. Whether Oleg was there at that time is unknown. The townspeople had to give a ransom of 10 thousand marks in silver and 1 thousand horses. In addition, some of the Rus took part in the campaign to the west. Russian sources mention that the Hungarians simply passed by in 898. It should be noted that later the Hungarians were allies of the great princes of Kyiv, participating together in wars with Byzantium.
Grand Duke Oleg lived in the capital city of Kyiv for 25 years, expanding the borders of the Russian state, conquering and annexing neighboring tribes and nationalities to his state. During this time, Prince Igor matured and became co-ruler of the Grand Duke, studying the science of management, as reported in the chronicle, “accompanied Oleg and listened to him.” Oleg personally selected a bride for his nephew - Olga, originally from Pskov. By 907, Oleg conceived a grand campaign to attack the Byzantine Empire. A large fleet was assembled - 2 thousand boats, each could transport 40-50 warriors. Approximately 80-100 thousand troops, which included squads of the Varangians, Novgorod Slovenes, Krivichi, Drevlyans, Radimichi, Polyans, Northerners, Vyatichi, Croats, Dulebov, Chud, Meri, went on a campaign. The Byzantine Romans called the Rus - “Great Scythia”. The army marched by sea and land, on horseback. Kyiv was left to Igor.
The Byzantine Emperor Leo VI the Wise (or Philosopher), seeing the powerful army of the Rus, did not dare to give battle and locked himself in the city, giving the surroundings of Constantinople to be plundered. To prevent the Russian fleet from entering the harbor, it was closed with chains. Oleg's army destroyed the surrounding area, but did not stop there. Oleg wanted to conquer Constantinople. The Grand Duke was excellent at science - “surprised - won.” He amazed the townspeople by ordering the boats to be put on wheels, and, catching the wind, the ships moved to Constantinople. The onslaught of the Rus caused horror among the Romans. The Byzantine emperor-basileus sent envoys to Oleg. They told him: “Do not destroy the city, we will give you the tribute you want.” Numerous foods and wine were brought to the Russian soldiers. But the Prophetic Oleg, sensing something was wrong, forbade them to touch food and drink. And for good reason. Food and drinks were poisoned. The enemy, unable to win fairly, conceived a meanness. The Romans were frightened, saying: “This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent to us by God.” And they offered peace on Russian terms.
Oleg, like a real leader, first of all took care of the soldiers and ordered the Romans to give each soldier 12 hryvnia of silver. Hryvnia is a monetary and weight unit of ancient Rus', equal to approximately 200 grams. The amount was huge, considering the size of Oleg’s army. The Byzantine Empire pledged to pay tribute to Rus'. Russian visiting merchants received the right to duty-free trade, the Byzantines were obliged to supply them with food and let them into the baths for free. In addition, the Byzantines had to supply the Russians returning home with food and naval equipment. As a sign of his patronage over Constantinople, the prince-magician nailed his shield to the gates of the city.
In 911, Grand Duke Oleg sent an embassy to the Byzantine capital, which confirmed the terms of peace and concluded a new treaty. Compared to the 907 agreement, the clause on duty-free trade disappears from it.
There is no exact information about Oleg’s death. According to the chronicle, in 912 Oleg died “from his horse” - he was bitten by a snake, he fell ill and died. He was buried on Mount Shchekovitsa. The Novgorod Chronicle also talks about a snake bite, but places his grave in Staraya Ladoga (mound of the Prophetic Oleg), and also reports that Oleg went “overseas.” Another difference between Novgorod sources is that they report Oleg’s death in 922. Oleg went to the north of Rus', giving the reins of power in Kyiv to Igor.
Therefore, a number of researchers believe that Oleg could have died in a battle with the Khazars. Sometime after 912, according to the Arabic author Al-Masudi, a Russian fleet of 500 boats entered the Kerch Strait. The Khazar Kagan gave permission to the Russian flotilla to pass through the Don to the Volga, where they were going to strike the lands subject to Persia. The Khazar ruler demanded half of the spoils for himself. The Rus' campaign was very successful; they returned with rich booty. The Khazar Khagan received his share, but the Khazars violated the agreement. While the Rus were devastating the coast of the Caspian Sea, a large army was assembled, and the route along the Volga was blocked. The bloody battle lasted for three days, most of the 20-30 thousand Russian troops died in an unequal battle. A small part was able to break through higher up the river, but was destroyed by the allies of the Khazars - the Burtases and the Volga Bulgars. The snake of the chronicle messages symbolizes betrayal, and Oleg could well have fallen in this battle.
A line from the encyclopedia...
Prince Oleg, also nicknamed Oleg the Prophet, is the legendary ruler of Rus' at the end of the 9th - beginning of the 10th centuries. Of course, the prototype of the chronicle Oleg was a historical figure, about whom, unfortunately, little is reliably known. Therefore, historians usually use the chronicle legend about Oleg and his time, taken from the “Tale of Bygone Years” (PVL), in scientific, popular science and educational texts. This is a work from the late 11th – early 12th centuries. is recognized by all as the main historical source for reconstructing the past of the Old Russian state. Most researchers tend to consider the Kiev-Pechersk monk Nestor as the author of the PVL.
Battles and victories
Prince of Novgorod (from 879) and Kiev (from 882), unifier of Ancient Rus'. He expanded its borders, dealt the first blow to the Khazar Kaganate, and concluded treaties with the Greeks that were beneficial for Rus'. The legendary commander about whom Pushkin wrote: “Your name is glorified by victory: Your shield is on the gates of Constantinople.”
According to the PVL version, Oleg seems to be a skillful commander and prudent politician (it is no coincidence that he was nicknamed “Prophetic”, that is, one who predicts the future). In 879–882 after the death of Rurik, Oleg ruled in the East Slavic North among the Krivichi, Ilmen Slovenes and surrounding Finno-Ugric peoples (Meri, Vesi, Chud tribes). Having made a trip to the south along the trade route “From the Varangians to the Greeks,” Oleg captured Kiev in 882. Thus, the two main centers of statehood among the East Slavic tribes, “Novgorod” (“Slavia” - in foreign sources) and the Kiev region (“Cuiaba”), were united under the rule of one ruler. Many modern historians take the date of 882 as the conditional date of birth of the Old Russian state. Oleg reigned there from 882 to 912. According to Nestor, after Oleg’s death from a snake bite, Rurik’s son Igor (912–945) became the Prince of Kyiv.
Scientists associate significant events in ancient Russian history with Oleg’s reign in Kyiv. First of all, the territorial core of the Old Russian state was laid. Oleg was recognized as the supreme ruler by the tribes of the Polyans, Northerners, Drevlyans, Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, Vyatichi, Radimichi, Ulichs and Tivertsi. Through the governors of Prince Oleg and the local princes of his vassals, public administration of the young power began to be built. Annual surveys of the population (Polyudye) laid the foundation for the tax and judicial systems.
Oleg also led an active foreign policy. The prince fought with the Khazars and made them completely forget that for two centuries the Khazar Khaganate had collected tribute from a number of East Slavic lands. In 898, Hungarians appeared at the borders of Oleg’s power, moving from Asia to Europe. Oleg managed to establish peaceful relations with these warlike people. Oleg's campaign in 907 against the capital of the Byzantine Empire - Constantinople (aka Constantinople) - brought Rus' in 911 an exceptionally successful trade agreement: Russian merchants received the right to duty-free trade in Constantinople, could live for six months in the capital suburb in the monastery of St. Mammoth, receive food and repair their boats at the expense of the Byzantine side. Even earlier, in 909, Rus' and the Byzantine Empire concluded a military treaty of alliance.
A few comments on the traditional interpretation of the image of Prophetic Oleg
To the above brief information about Oleg, which has become a generally accepted tradition - especially in popular and educational literature, it is necessary to add several scientific comments.
Firstly, according to archaeological data, in the 9th century. Novgorod as such did not yet exist. On the site of Novgorod there were three separate villages. They were united into a single city by Detinets, a fortress built at the end of the 10th century. It was the fortress that was called the “city” in those days. So both Rurik and Oleg were not in Novgorod, but in a certain “Stargorod”. It could be either Ladoga or the Rurik settlement near Novgorod. Ladoga, a fortified city on the Volkhov, located near the confluence of the Volkhov into Lake Ladoga, was in the 7th - first half of the 9th centuries. the largest shopping center in the north-eastern Baltic. According to archaeological data, the city was founded by immigrants from Scandinavia, but later there was a mixed population - the Normans lived side by side with the Slavs and Finno-Ugric peoples. By the middle of the 9th century. refers to the terrible pogrom and fire that destroyed Ladoga. This may well be consistent with the chronicle news of the great war of 862, when the Ilmen Slovenes, Krivichi, the entire Merya and Chud “drove the Varangians over the sea,” who collected tribute from them in 859–862, and then began to fight among themselves (“ and generation after generation rose..."). After the destruction of the mid-9th century. Ladoga was rebuilt, but never regained its former significance.
Under Nestor, there was no longer any memory of the former greatness of Ladoga or the significance of the Rurik settlement; he wrote two centuries after the time of the calling of the Varangians. But the glory of Novgorod as a major political center reached its peak, which made the chronicler believe in its antiquity and it was in Novgorod that the first rulers of Rus' were placed.
Prince Oleg and Igor. Artist I. Glazunov
Our second reservation will concern chronology. The fact is that the chronology in the PVL, as in another ancient Russian chronicle - the Novgorod one, before the reign of Vladimir (980-1015) is conditional. Nestor had at hand separate records of facts from the 10th–11th centuries, even, perhaps, an entire initial chronicle, which historians highlight in the PVL, but there were no exact dates of early events there. Only oral legends were spoken about them, passed down from generation to generation among the inhabitants of Rus'. The lack of dates was a big problem for Nestor, but he, being a talented chronicler, made the first reconstruction of chronology in Russian historical science. Legends and fragmentary records named the names of the Byzantine kings (Caesars), contemporaries of the first Russian princes. Based on the years of reign indicated in the Byzantine chronicles translated into Slavic in Kyiv, the author of PVL compiled his own conventional system of time coordinates for the initial period of ancient Russian history. A. A. Shakhmatov noted that the date of Oleg’s death in PVL 912 coincides with the date of the death of his counterpart Emperor Leo VI, and Igor dies, like his contemporary Emperor Roman I, in 945. Both Igor and Oleg reign on 33 year, such a coincidence is suspicious and reeks of an epic sacred-legendary approach to chronology. The last remark is also appropriate in relation to the story of Oleg’s death. Both the PVL and the Novgorod Chronicle claim that Oleg died after being bitten by a snake that crawled out of the horse’s skull. It was Oleg’s own horse, but the prince set him aside, because the sorcerer once predicted his death from his own horse. According to the PVL version, this fatal meeting between Oleg and his dead horse took place near Kiev in 912.
Our third remark concerns the fact that the PVL version of the origin, activities and death of Prophetic Oleg is not the only one among the chronicle Russian sources. The first Novgorod Chronicle, which, according to some researchers, is even older than PVL, calls Oleg not a prince, but a governor under Igor, the son of Rurik. Oleg accompanies Igor on his campaigns. It is Prince Igor who deals with Askold, and then goes on a campaign against the Roman (Byzantine) Empire and besieges Constantinople. Oleg, according to the First Novgorod Chronicle, finds his end when he leaves Kyiv north to Ladoga, where the legendary snake awaits him. Bitten by it, he dies, but not in 912, but in 922. The Novgorod Chronicle also reports another version of Oleg’s death: some say that Oleg went “overseas” and died there.
The fourth comment will be related to Oleg’s possible participation in the eastern campaigns of the Rus. Russian chronicles say that he successfully fought with the Khazars, and eastern sources also talk about the Caspian campaigns of the Rus, directed against Persia, which occurred during Oleg’s time. Some historians believe that the vague and fragmentary messages in Eastern documents on this matter can be hypothetically associated not only with time, but also with the name of Oleg.
According to a historian of the 13th century. Ibn Isfandiyar, somewhere between 864 and 884 the first Rus raided the Persian city of Abaskun, but the emir of Tabaristan managed to defeat and kill all the Rus. Another campaign or even two campaigns of the Rus took place in 909–910. 16 ships of the Rus captured and plundered the city of Abaskun, but the emir of the Sari region in 909 caught up with a detachment of Rus in the Mugan steppe region and defeated it. In 910, Russian ships appeared near the city of Sari, took it, and then some Russians went deep into the country, while others remained on their ships. Shirvanshah managed to defeat the Russian ships in a night battle, and they themselves all died.
And finally, another campaign, which the historian can correlate with one of the Russian chronicle versions of the death of Oleg, took place in 913. The famous Arab historian and geographer Al-Masudi testified that somewhere in 913–914. (“... it was after 300 Hijri,” wrote Al-Masudi) the Rus, led by their leader, whose name was not named, entered the Sea of Azov on 500 boats from the Black Sea through the Kerch Strait. It is worth saying that the same Al-Masudi, in another of his works, mentioned two great rulers of the Rus - Al-Dir, in whom they see the chronicle ruler of Kiev, and Olvang, who is usually associated with the chronicle Askold, but can equally well be found in this transcription of the name similarity with the name of Oleg, the winner of Dir and Askold.
Overseas guests. Artist N. Roerich
But let's return to Al-Masudi's message about the Caspian campaign of the Rus. The ruler of the Khazar Kaganate, wanting to avert danger from himself, allowed the Russians to go to the mouth of the Don, and then along this river to reach the place where the Don comes closest to the Volga. Here the Russians dragged their ships to the Volga. The target of the Russian invasion was Persia. The ruler of the Rus promised the Khazar king half of the future Persian booty for loyalty. The Rus, having descended along the Volga to the Caspian Sea, began to successfully fight for Persian Azerbaijan. According to the agreement, they left half of the spoils in Khazaria. However, they were not able to return home calmly. The Khazar king's guard consisted of Muslim mercenaries, and they decided to take revenge on the Russians for their coreligionists who died and were robbed in Azerbaijan. The Khazar ruler did not contradict the guards, but warned the Rus about the danger. The battle between Muslims and Russians lasted three days. 30 thousand Rus died, the rest retreated up the Volga, but were finally defeated by the Turks, Bulgars and Burtases. Their leader also died in this campaign. Some historians believe that it can be assumed that the “side version” expressed in the Novgorod Chronicle about Oleg’s death “overseas” is a vague memory of Oleg’s death precisely in the Caspian campaign, and it is incorrect to interpret “went overseas” as clearly returning to Scandinavia across the Baltic Sea, as they usually try to decipher the “dumb” message of the Novgorod Chronicle.
The Khazar source, known as the “Cambridge Document,” tells about the war between the Rus and the Khazars, which took place in the 10th century. Historians believe that, most likely, in the 940s, since the events described in the “Cambridge Document” have analogies with the stories in Russian chronicles about Prince Igor’s campaign against the Greeks in 941 and the Rus’ raid on the Khazar city of Samkerts on Taman in 944. However, in the Khazar source the leader of the Rus is called H-l-g-w, which can be read as Khlgu or Helgo, and the latter clearly resembles the Scandinavian “Helgi” and the Russian Oleg. Maybe this Helgo of the “Cambridge Document” is our Prophetic Oleg. If so, then his regency over Igor or co-government with him, or perhaps his service to him, lasted in reality longer than is generally believed in the established historical tradition.
According to the mentioned Khazar message, Helgo concluded an agreement with Constantinople and, by virtue of it, went to fight the Khazars. On the Taman Peninsula, he took the city of Samkerts and began to leave with the booty. Then the Khazar governor of Samkerts Pesakh gathered forces, caught up and defeated the Rus. Helgo was forced by the agreement with Pesach to go to war against Byzantium. However, the Greeks burned almost the entire Russian fleet with the famous Greek fire. A sense of honor did not allow Helgo and his warriors to return home twice defeated, and they set out on a campaign against the Persian possessions in the Caspian Sea. Here Helgo's squad and he himself found their end in battle.
Prince Oleg and the sorcerer. Prophecy of Oleg's death.
From the above comments, let us now move on to a more important, in our opinion, circumstance. The fact is that world history knows many examples when a historical character seemed to split into two during the time following his death. In the memory of descendants, his double appeared, which crystallized from oral traditions, memories of contemporaries, interpretations of descendants, reflections of chroniclers who recorded information about him. The legend often “corrected” all the mistakes and minor features of the real prototype, and in the memory of the people (historical myth or, in other words, historical tradition), this legendary double replaced the real historical person and began to act as a serious ideological factor in the current history of the people, which had already been defended from the time of the prototype for many centuries. In Western Europe, such a metamorphosis happened with Richard the Lionheart, in Russian - in many respects with Alexander Nevsky, among the nomadic peoples of Asia - with the images of Iskander (Alexander the Great) and Genghis Khan. By the will of the chronicler who created the Tale of Bygone Years, his successors in the 13th–17th centuries, the first Russian historians and, of course, A.S. Pushkin, who poetically retold the PVL legend about the Prophetic Oleg, the legendary Oleg became part of all subsequent Russian history. His image of a prince-warrior, defender of the Russian land and creator of the Russian state became part of the self-identification of the Russian people throughout its subsequent history after the 9th century.
Deeds of long ago, ancient legends...
The Russian historical tradition recognizes the campaign against Constantinople in 907 as the greatest of the military leadership feats of Prince Oleg. This is how the Tale of Bygone Years tells about this event.
“Per year 6415 (907). Oleg went against the Greeks, leaving Igor in Kyiv; He took with him many Varangians, and Slavs, and Chuds, and Krivichi, and Meryu, and Drevlyans, and Radimichi, and Polans, and Northerners, and Vyatichi, and Croats, and Dulebs, and Tiverts, known as interpreters: these were all called Greeks "Great Scythia". And with all these Oleg went on horses and in ships; and there were 2000 ships. And he came to Constantinople: the Greeks closed the Court, and the city was closed. And Oleg went ashore and began to fight, and committed many murders to the Greeks in the vicinity of the city, and broke many chambers, and burned churches. And those who were captured, some were dissected, others were tortured, others were shot, and some were thrown into the sea, and the Russians did many other evils to the Greeks, as enemies usually do.
The Legend of the Prophetic Oleg in illustrations by V. M. Vasnetsov
And Oleg ordered his soldiers to make wheels and put ships on wheels. And when a fair wind blew, they raised sails in the field and went to the city. The Greeks, seeing this, were frightened and said, sending to Oleg: “Do not destroy the city, we will give you the tribute you want.” And Oleg stopped the soldiers, and they brought him food and wine, but did not accept it, since it was poisoned. And the Greeks were afraid and said: “This is not Oleg, but Saint Dmitry, sent to us by God.” And Oleg ordered to give tribute to 2000 ships: 12 hryvnia per person, and there were 40 men in each ship.
And the Greeks agreed to this, and the Greeks began to ask for peace so that the Greek land would not fight. Oleg, moving a little away from the capital, began negotiations for peace with the Greek kings Leon and Alexander and sent Karl, Farlaf, Vermud, Rulav and Stemid to their capital with the words: “Pay me tribute.” And the Greeks said: “We will give you whatever you want.” And Oleg ordered to give his soldiers for 2000 ships 12 hryvnia per rowlock, and then give tribute to Russian cities: first of all for Kiev, then for Chernigov, for Pereyaslavl, for Polotsk, for Rostov, for Lyubech and for other cities: for according to In these cities sit the great princes, subject to Oleg. “When the Russians come, let them take as much allowance for the ambassadors as they want; and if merchants come, let them take monthly food for 6 months: bread, wine, meat, fish and fruits. And let them give them a bath - as much as they want. When the Russians go home, let them take food, anchors, ropes, sails and whatever else they need from the Tsar for the journey.” And the Greeks obliged, and the kings and all the boyars said: “If the Russians do not come for trade, then let them not take their monthly allowance; Let the Russian prince, by decree, prohibit the Russians who come here from committing atrocities in the villages and in our country. Let the Russians who come here live near the Church of St. Mammoth, and send them from our kingdom, and write down their names, then they will take their monthly allowance - first those who came from Kiev, then from Chernigov, and from Pereyaslavl, and from other cities . And let them enter the city only through one gate, accompanied by the king’s husband, without weapons, 50 people each, and trade as much as they need, without paying any fees.”
Calling of the Varangians. Hood. V. M. Vasnetsov
Kings Leon and Alexander made peace with Oleg, pledged to pay tribute and swore allegiance to each other: they themselves kissed the cross, and Oleg and his husbands were taken to swear allegiance according to Russian law, and they swore by their weapons and Perun, their god, and Volos, the god of cattle, and established peace. And Oleg said: “Sew sails for Rus' from fibers, and for the Slavs from coprine,” and so it was. And he hung his shield on the gates as a sign of victory, and left Constantinople. And the Russians raised sails of grass, and the Slavs raised their sails, and the wind tore them apart; and the Slavs said: “Let’s take our thicknesses; the Slavs were not given sails made of pavolok.” And Oleg returned to Kyiv, carrying gold, and grasses, and fruits, and wine, and all sorts of ornaments. And they called Oleg the Prophetic, since the people were pagans and unenlightened.”
Historians believe that the number of ships (2000) is clearly overestimated by the chronicler. The Rus boat, also called “monoxyl” (single-wood) in Greek chronicles due to the fact that its keel was hewn from one trunk, was a ship that could carry up to 40 warriors. Consequently, Oleg's army was about 80,000 people. It is unlikely that the prince could gather such an army. If we take the information from the First Novgorod Chronicle about the campaign against Constantinople, then it dates this event to 6430 from the creation of the world (i.e. to the 922nd from the birth of Christ), speaks of a maximum of 200 ships, i.e. about 8 thousand warriors, and the description of the campaign itself is reminiscent of the PVL story about Igor’s campaign against the Greeks in 941. As we see, the historian’s interpretation of source reports in this case may vary on the question of the number of Russian troops from 8 to 80 thousand participants in the campaign.
The historian’s position here depends on what real and not conventional chronicle time (according to Novgorod or PVL - it doesn’t matter) he will associate Oleg’s campaign with. The overwhelming majority of historians - both Russian scholars and Byzantine scholars - have no doubt that Oleg’s campaign itself really took place. The question is when?
Miniature of the Radziwill Chronicle
The Byzantine historical chronicles do not know such a grandiose campaign in 907. But Byzantine historical science described the grandiose invasion of the Rus in 860 (Works of Patriarch Photius, a contemporary of the campaign; “The Life of Patriarch Ignatius” by Nikita Paphlogonian, written at the beginning of the 10th century; “Chronicle of the successor George Amartol”; Byzantine chronicle, known as the “Brussels Chronicle” "(so named because it was discovered by the Belgian historian Franz Cumont and published in Brussels in 1894), etc.). This campaign is also known from Western European sources, in particular the “Venetian Chronicle”, which was written by the Ambassador of Venice to Byzantium, John the Deacon. All of the above-mentioned foreign sources characterize the campaign as extremely destructive and unexpected for Constantinople. The Russians chose the timing for their campaign exceptionally wisely from the point of view of military strategy. Emperor Michael III, with an army that even included part of the garrison of Constantinople, left to fight the Arabs. At the time of the Russian raid, he was 500 km east of Constantinople, near a certain Black River. According to the “Venice Chronicle”, the Rus’ raid ended extremely successfully for them: “At this time, the people of the Normans (John the Deacon considers the Rus to come from Scandinavia, just as Nestor calls them Varangians, placing them in line with other North German tribes) on 360 ships dared to approach to Constantinople. But since they could in no way damage the impregnable city, they boldly devastated the surrounding area, killing a large number of people there, and so returned home in triumph.”
The Byzantine Patriarch Photius described the initial success of the Rus and the enormous booty they captured, but stated that in the end the Byzantines were able to fight off the “northern Scythians.” “Michael, the son of Theophilus [ruled] with his mother Theodora for four years and one for ten years, and with Basil for one year and four months. During his reign, on June 18, in the 8th indictment, in the summer of 6368, in the 5th year of his reign, the dew came on two hundred ships, which, through the intercession of the most glorious Mother of God, were defeated by Christians, completely defeated and destroyed.” However, the same Photius was forced to admit: “Oh, how everything was upset then, and the city was almost, so to speak, raised on a spear! When it was easy to take it, and it was impossible for the inhabitants to defend themselves, then, obviously, it depended on the will of the enemy whether he would suffer or not... The salvation of the city was in the hands of the enemies and its preservation depended on their generosity... the city was not taken by their mercy, and annexed to suffering, the ignominy of this generosity increases the painful feeling of captivity.”
It is interesting that Photius, reflecting the knowledge of the then Byzantines about the attackers, did not exactly know their origin. He called them “Scythians” (i.e. barbarians) and “Russians”, people of northern origin who came from the Black Sea. Photius associated the growth of strength, power and glory of the Russians with the campaign of 860. In 867, in a letter from Photius to the Eastern Patriarchs, it was reported that after the Rus' raid on Constantinople, ambassadors came from them and an agreement was concluded. Photius did not convey its contents, but noted that the ambassadors were baptized at their request.
The famous Russian historian B. A. Rybakov at one time put forward the version that the events of Prince Oleg’s campaign against Constantinople described in the PVL actually refer to the war of 860. This opinion is also tended to be shared by some other researchers, for example, L. N. Gumilyov .
from the book of the series “Great Commanders of Russia” (2014)
In 879, leaving behind a young son Igor, the Novgorod prince Rurik died. The board was taken into the hands of Oleg the Prophet, Prince of Novgorod from 879 and Grand Duke of Kiev from 882. In an effort to expand his possessions, the prince gathered a fairly strong army. It included Krivichi, Ilmen Slavs and representatives of Finnish tribes. Moving south, Oleg annexed the cities of Smolensk and Lyubech to his possessions. However, the young ruler's plans were more ambitious. Having given power in the conquered cities to people loyal to him, the warlike prince moved towards Kyiv. Oleg's campaign against Kyiv was a success. In 882 the city was captured, and its rulers Askold and Dir were killed. Oleg ascended the Kyiv throne. The same year is considered the date.
The reign of Prince Oleg in Kyiv began with the strengthening of city walls and defensive structures. The borders of Kievan Rus were also fortified with small fortresses (“outposts”), where warriors carried out constant service. In 883-885. the prince undertook several successful campaigns. The Slavic tribes who settled along the banks of the Dnieper, the Radimichi who lived on the banks of the Dniester, Bug, Sozh, the Drevlyans and the Northerners were subjugated. By order of Oleg, cities were built in the occupied lands. Conquered tribes were required to pay taxes. Actually, the entire internal policy of Oleg, like other princes of that time, boiled down to collecting taxes.
Oleg's foreign policy was successful. The most important event was the campaign against Byzantium in 907. The prince gathered for this campaign a huge army at that time (according to some sources, up to 80 thousand people). Byzantium, despite the defensive tricks of the Greeks, was captured, the suburbs were plundered. The result of the campaign was a rich tribute, as well as trade benefits for Russian merchants. Five years later, peace with Byzantium was confirmed by the conclusion of a written treaty. It was after this campaign that the great Kiev prince Oleg, the founder of the state of Kievan Rus, began to be called the Prophetic (i.e., a sorcerer).
Prince Oleg, one of the greatest rulers of Rus', died in 912. His death is shrouded in legends. According to one of them, the most famous, Oleg asked a sorcerer he met on the road about his death. He predicted the prince's death from his beloved war horse. The prince never mounted this horse again, but ordered those close to him to take care of it. Many years later, Oleg wished to see the bones of the horse, deciding that the sorcerer had made a mistake. He stepped on the skull, and a poisonous snake crawled out of it and bit the prince. After his death, Oleg was buried in Kyiv. There is another version of the prince’s death, according to which the warlike Oleg died in battle.
The biography of Oleg, who became the first prince, whose life and deeds are confirmed by chronicles, became the source of many legends and literary works. One of them - “Song of the Prophetic Oleg” - belongs to the pen of A.S. Pushkin.
