History and geography of Saudi Arabia, the specifics of the country. Saudi Arabia: information, data, general characteristics. Saudi Arabia: form of government Chief in Saudi Arabia

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SAUDI ARABIA, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (Arab. Al-Mamlaka al-Arabiya al-Saudiya), a state on the Arabian Peninsula in Southwest Asia. In the north, it borders with Jordan, Iraq and Kuwait; in the east it is washed by the Persian Gulf and borders with Qatar and the United Arab Emirates, in the southeast it borders with Oman, in the south with Yemen, in the west it is washed by the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. The total length of the borders is 4431 km. Area - 2149.7 thousand sq. km (the data are approximate, since the boundaries in the south and southeast are not clearly defined). In 1975 and 1981, agreements were signed between Saudi Arabia and Iraq on the division of a small neutral zone on the border of the two states, which was implemented in 1987. Another agreement was signed with Qatar on demarcating the border until 1998. In 1996, the neutral zone was divided into border with Kuwait (5,570 sq. km), but both countries continue to share oil and other natural resources in the area. The border issues with Yemen have not yet been resolved; nomadic groups in the border areas with Yemen resist border demarcation. Negotiations continue between Kuwait and Saudi Arabia on the issue of the sea border with Iran. The status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been finally established (the details of the 1974 and 1977 agreements were not made public). Population - 24,293 thousand people, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners (2003). The capital is Riyadh (3627 thousand). Administratively it is divided into 13 provinces (103 districts).

NATURE

Terrain relief.

Saudi Arabia occupies almost 80% of the Arabian Peninsula and several coastal islands in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. In terms of surface structure, most of the country is a vast desert plateau (altitude from 300–600 m in the east to 1520 m in the west), slightly dissected by dry river beds (wadis). In the west, parallel to the coast of the Red Sea, the Hejaz Mountains ( Arab."Barrier") and Asher ( Arab.“Difficult”) with a height of 2500–3000 m (with the highest point of the city of Nabi-Shuayb, 3353 m), passing into the coastal lowland of Tihama (with a width of 5 to 70 km). In the mountains of Asir, the relief varies from mountain peaks to large valleys. There are few passes over the Hejaz mountains; traffic between the hinterland of Saudi Arabia and the shores of the Red Sea is limited. In the north, along the borders of Jordan, stretches the rocky desert of El Hamad. The largest sandy deserts are located in the northern and central parts of the country: Big Nefud and Small Nefud (Dekhna), famous for their red sands; in the south and southeast - Rub al-Khali ( Arab."Empty quarter") with dunes and ridges in the northern part up to 200 m. Indefinite borders with Yemen, Oman and the United Arab Emirates run through the deserts. The total area of ​​deserts reaches approximately 1 million square meters. km, incl. Rub al-Khali - 777 thousand sq. km . Al Khasa lowland (up to 150 km wide) stretches in places along the coast of the Persian Gulf. The sea shores are mostly low, sandy, and slightly indented.

Climate.

In the north - subtropical, in the south - tropical, sharply continental, dry. Summers are very hot, winters are warm. The average July temperature in Riyadh ranges from 26 ° C to 42 ° C, in January - from 8 ° C to 21 ° C, the absolute maximum is 48 ° C, in the south of the country up to 54 ° C. In the mountains, subzero temperatures are sometimes observed in winter and snow. Average annual precipitation is about 70-100 mm (in the central regions maximum in spring, in the north - in winter, in the south - in summer); in the mountains up to 400 mm in year. In the Rub al-Khali desert and some other areas, in some years, it does not rain at all. Deserts are characterized by seasonal winds. Hot and dry southerly winds samum and khamsin in spring and early summer often cause sand storms, winter north wind shemal brings a cold snap.

Water resources.

Almost all of Saudi Arabia has no permanent rivers or water sources, temporary streams are formed only after intense rains. They are especially abundant in the east, in El-Has, where there are many springs that irrigate the oases. Groundwater is often found close to the surface and below wadi beds. The problem of water supply is carried out through the development of enterprises for desalination of sea water, the creation of deep wells and artesian wells.

Soils.

Primitive desert soils predominate; in the north of the country, subtropical gray soils are developed, in the low-lying eastern regions of El-Khasa - salt marshes and meadow-saline soils. Although the government is implementing a landscaping program, forests and woodland cover less than 1% of the country's land area. Arable land (2%) is mainly located in fertile oases north of Rub al-Khali. A significant area (56%) is occupied by land suitable for pasture animal husbandry (in 1993).

Natural resources.

The country possesses huge reserves of oil and natural gas. Proved reserves of crude oil reach 261.7 billion barrels, or 35.6 billion tons (26% of all world reserves), natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cub. m. In total, there are about 77 oil and gas fields. The main oil-bearing region is located in the east of the country, in Al-Has. The reserves of the world's largest oil field, Ghawar, are estimated at 70 billion barrels of oil. Other large fields are Safania (proven reserves - 19 billion barrels of oil), Abkaik, Katif. There are also reserves of iron ores, chromium, copper, lead, zinc and gold.

Vegetable world.

predominantly desert and semi-desert. On the sands, in some places, white saxaul and camel thorn grow, on hamads - lichens, on lava fields - wormwood, astragalus, along wadi beds - single poplars, acacia, and in more saline places - tamarisk; along the coasts and salt marshes - halophytic shrubs. Most of the sandy and rocky deserts are almost completely devoid of vegetation. In spring and in humid years, the role of ephemerals in the composition of vegetation increases. In the mountains of Asir, there are areas of savannah where acacia trees, wild olives, and almonds grow. In the oases - groves of date palms, citrus fruits, bananas, grain and vegetable crops.

Animal world

quite diverse: antelope, gazelle, hyrax, wolf, jackal, hyena, fennec fox, caracal, wild donkey, onager, hare. There are many rodents (gerbils, gophers, jerboas, etc.) and reptiles (snakes, lizards, turtles). Among the birds are eagles, kites, vultures, peregrine falcons, bustards, larks, sand grouses, quails, pigeons. The coastal lowlands serve as breeding grounds for locusts. There are more than 2000 species of coral in the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf (black coral is especially prized). About 3% of the country's area is occupied by 10 protected areas. In the mid-1980s, the government established Asir National Park, home to nearly extinct wildlife such as the oryx and the Nubian ibex.

POPULATION

Demography.

In 2003, 24,293 thousand people lived in Saudi Arabia, incl. 5576 thousand foreigners. Since the first census in 1974, the population has tripled. In 1990-1996 the average annual population growth was 3.4%, in 2000-2003 - 3.27%. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2 per 1000 people, the mortality rate was 5.79. Life expectancy is 68 years. In terms of age, more than half of the country's inhabitants are under 20 years of age. Women make up 45% of the population. According to UN forecasts, the population is expected to grow to 39,965,000 by 2025.

The composition of the population.

The overwhelming majority of the population of Saudi Arabia are Arabs (Saudi Arabs - 74.2%, Bedouins - 3.9%, Gulf Arabs - 3%), most of whom have retained the tribal organization. The largest tribal associations are Anaza and Shammar, tribes are Avazim, Avamir, Ajman, Ataiba, Bali, Beit Yamani, Beni Atiya, Beni Murra, Beni Sahr, Beni Yas, Wahiba, Dawasir, Dakhm, Janaba, Juhaina, Kakhtan, Manasir, manahil, muakhib, muayr, subey, suleiba, shararat, harb, khuweyta, huteim, etc. The Suleiba tribe inhabiting the northern regions is considered to be of non-Arab origin and, according to some sources, consists of the descendants of the crusaders who were captured and enslaved. In total, there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country.

In addition to ethnic Arabs, Saudi Arabs of mixed ethnicity with Turkish, Iranian, Indonesian, Indian, African roots live in the country. As a rule, these are the descendants of pilgrims who settled in the Hejaz region, or Africans who were imported into Arabia as slaves (before the abolition of slavery in 1962, there were up to 750 thousand slaves in the country). The latter live mainly in the coastal regions of Tihame and Al-Hasa, as well as in oases.

Foreign workers are approx. 22% of the population and consists of non-Saudi Arabs, immigrants from African and Asian countries (India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Indonesia, Philippines), as well as a small number of Europeans and Americans. Foreign Arabs live in cities, oil fields and areas bordering Yemen. Representatives of all other peoples are concentrated in large cities and in the oil fields, where, as a rule, they form more than half of the total population.

Work force.

The economically active population is 7 million people, of which 12% are employed in agriculture, 25% in industry, 63% in the service sector. The number of people employed in industry and services has been steadily increasing in recent years. 35% of those employed in the economy are foreign workers (1999); initially, Arabs from neighboring countries predominated among them, over time they were replaced by immigrants from South and Southeast Asia. There is no official information on the state of unemployment. However, according to unofficial data, almost 1/3 of the economically active male population (women are practically not employed in the economy) is unemployed (2002). In this regard, Saudi Arabia, since 1996, has implemented a policy to restrict the recruitment of foreign labor. Riyadh has developed a 5-year economic development plan designed to stimulate the recruitment of Saudi Arabians. Companies (under threat of penalties) are required to increase the recruitment of Saudi workers by at least 5% per year. Simultaneously, since 1996, the government has declared 24 professions closed to foreigners. Today, the most successful replacement of foreigners by nationals of Saudi Arabia takes place mainly in the public sector, where in recent years the state has hired more than 700 thousand Saudis. In 2003, the Saudi Arabian Interior Ministry unveiled a new 10-year plan to reduce the number of foreign workers. According to this plan, the number of foreigners, including working immigrants and members of their families, by 2013 should be reduced to 20% of the number of indigenous Saudis. Thus, according to the forecasts of experts, taking into account the growth of the country's population, the foreign colony should be reduced by about half in a decade.

Urbanization.

Until the early 1960s, the majority of the population were nomads and semi-nomads. Due to rapid economic growth, the share of the urban population has increased from 23.6% (1970) to 80% (2003). In the late 1990s, approx. 95% of the population switched to a sedentary lifestyle. Most of the population is concentrated in oases and cities. Average density 12.4 people / sq. km (some cities and oases have a density of more than 1,000 people / sq. km). The most densely populated areas are near the coast of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, as well as around Riyadh and to the north-east of it, where the main oil-producing regions are located. The population of the capital, Riyadh (since 1984, diplomatic missions are located here), is 3627 thousand (all data for 2003), or 14% of the country's population (the annual population growth in the city between 1974 and 1992 reached 8.2%), mainly they are Saudis, as well as citizens of other Arab, Asian and Western countries. Jeddah, the main port of the Hejaz and the most important business center of Saudi Arabia, has a population of 2,674 thousand. Until 1984, diplomatic missions of foreign states were located here. There are also two Muslim holy cities in the Hejaz - Mecca (1541 thousand) and Medina (818 thousand), accessible only to Muslim pilgrims. In 1998, these cities were visited by approx. 1.13 million pilgrims, including approx. 1 million - from various Muslim countries, as well as North and South America, Europe and Asia. Other large cities: Damman (675 thousand), Et-Taif (633 thousand), Tabuk (382 thousand). Their population consists of representatives of various Arab countries, including the Gulf countries, Indians, as well as people from North America and Europe. Bedouins, preserving a nomadic lifestyle, inhabit mainly the northern and eastern regions of the country. More than 60% of the entire territory (the Rub-al-Khali, Nefud, Dakhna deserts) does not have a permanent sedentary population; even nomads do not penetrate into some areas.

Language.

The official language of Saudi Arabia is Standard Arabic, belonging to the West Semitic group of the Afrasian family. One of its dialects is classical Arabic, in view of its archaic sound, it is currently used mainly in a religious context. In everyday life, the Arabic dialect of Arabic (Ammiya) is used, which is closest to the literary Arabic language, which developed from the classical language (el-fusha). Within the Arabian dialect, the dialects of Hejaz, Asir, Najd and Al-Hasa are closely related. Although the differences between literary and spoken language are less noticeable here than in other Arab countries, the language of urban dwellers differs from the dialects of nomads. Among immigrants from other countries, English, Tagalog, Urdu, Hindi, Farsi, Somali, Indonesian, etc. are also common.

Religion.

Saudi Arabia is the center of the Islamic world. The official religion is Islam. According to various estimates, between 85% and 93.3% of Saudis are Sunnis; from 3.3% to 15% - Shiites. In the central part of the country, almost the entire population of the Hanbalis is Wahhabis (more than half of all Sunnis in the country belong to them). In the west and southwest, the Shafi'i wing of Sunni Islam prevails. There are also Hanifis, Malikis, Salafi Hanbalis and Wahhabis Hanbadis. Shia Ismailis and Zaidis live in a small number. A significant group of Shiites (about a third of the population) live in the east, in Al-Khasa. Christians make up about 3% of the population (according to the American Conference of Catholic Bishops, over 500 thousand Catholics live in the country), all other confessions make up 0.4% (as of 1992, unofficially). There is no information on the number of atheists.

STATE STRUCTURE

The first legal documents establishing the general principles of state structure and government of the country were adopted in March 1992. According to The foundations of the system of power Saudi Arabia is an absolute theocratic monarchy ruled by the sons and grandsons of the founding king Abdel Aziz bin Abdel Rahman al-Faisal Al Saud. The Holy Quran serves as the country's constitution, which is governed by Islamic law (Sharia).

The highest authorities include the head of state and the crown prince; Council of Ministers; Advisory Board; High Council of Justice. However, the real structure of monarchical power in Saudi Arabia is somewhat different from how it is presented in theory. To a large extent, the king's power rests on the Al Saud family, consisting of more than 5 thousand people and forming the basis of the monarchical system in the country. The king rules with the advice of the leading members of the family, in particular his brothers. His relations with religious leaders are built on the same basis. Equally important to the stability of the kingdom is the support of noble families such as al-Sudairi and Ibn Jiluwi, as well as the religious family of Al al-Sheikh, a subsidiary branch of the Saudi dynasty. These families have remained loyal to the Al Saud clan for nearly two centuries.

Central executive branch.

The head of state and religious leader of the country (Imam) is the Minister of the two Holy Mosques, King (Malik) Fahd bin Abdel Aziz Al Saud (since June 13, 1982), who is simultaneously the Prime Minister, Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces and the Supreme Judge. Since 1932 the country has been ruled by the Saudi dynasty. The head of state has full executive, legislative and judicial power. His powers are theoretically limited only by Sharia and Saudi traditions. The king is called upon to maintain the unity of the royal family, religious leaders (ulema) and other elements of Saudi society.

The mechanism of succession to the throne was officially confirmed only in 1992. The heir to the throne is appointed during his lifetime by the king himself, with the subsequent approval of the ulema. According to tribal traditions, there is no clear succession system in Saudi Arabia. Power usually passes to the eldest of the clan, the most appropriate for the performance of the functions of the ruler. Since 1995, due to the monarch's illness, the de facto head of state is the Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister Abdullah bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud (half-brother of the monarch, heir to the throne from June 13, 1982, regent from January 1 to February 22, 1996). In order to ensure a conflict-free change of power in the country, in early June 2000 by the decision of King Fahd and Crown Prince Abdullah, the Royal Family Council was formed, which includes 18 of the most influential direct descendants of the founder of the Arabian monarchy, Ibn Saud.

According to the constitution, the king heads the government (in its current form has existed since 1953) and determines the main directions of its activities. The Council of Ministers combines both executive and legislative functions. All his decisions, which must be compatible with Sharia law, are taken by a majority vote and are subject to final approval by royal decree. The Cabinet consists of the Prime Minister, First and Second Deputy Prime Minister, 20 ministers (including the Minister of Defense, who is the second Deputy Prime Minister), as well as government ministers and advisers appointed as members of the Council of Ministers by decree of the King. The most important ministries are usually headed by representatives of the royal family. The ministers help the king to carry out his powers in accordance with the constitution and other laws. The King has the right to dissolve or reorganize the Council of Ministers at any time. Since 1993, the term of office of each minister has been limited to four years. On August 2, 1995, King Fahd made the most significant personnel changes in recent decades in the cabinet, which was left by 16 of the 20 ministers of the current government.

Legislature.

There is no legislative body - the king rules the country through decrees. Since December 1993, an Advisory Council (CC, Majlis al-Shura) has been operating under the monarch, consisting of scientists, writers, businessmen, prominent members of the royal family and representing the first public forum in the history of Saudi Arabia. The Constitutional Court is called upon to develop recommendations to the government on issues of socio-economic development of the country, to prepare conclusions on various legal acts and international agreements. At least 10 members of the Council have the right to initiate legislation. They can propose a new bill or additions and changes to existing legislation and submit them to the chairman of the Council. All decisions, reports and recommendations of the Council must be submitted directly to the King and the President of the Council of Ministers for consideration. If the points of view of the two councils coincide, the decision is made with the consent of the king; if the points of view do not coincide, the king has the right to decide which option will be adopted.

According to a 1993 decree, the Advisory Council consisted of 60 members and a chairman, appointed by the king for a term of 4 years. In July 1997 the number of the Constitutional Court increased to 90 members, and in May 2001 - to 120. The Chairman of the Council is Mohammed bin Jubeir (in 1997 he retained his post for a second term). With the enlargement, the composition of the Council also changed, in 1997 three representatives from the Shiite minority were included for the first time; in 1999, women were allowed to attend meetings of the Constitutional Court. Recently, the importance of the Advisory Board has been gradually increasing. There are calls from the moderate liberal opposition to hold general elections to the Constitutional Court.

The judicial system.

The civil and judicial codes are based on Sharia law. Thus, all marriage, divorce, property, inheritance, criminal and other matters are governed by Islamic precepts. Several secular laws were also passed in 1993. The country's judicial system consists of disciplinary and general courts, which deal with simple criminal and civil cases; Sharia or Cassation Court; and the Supreme Court, which reviews and reviews all the most serious cases, as well as controls the activities of other courts. All courts are based on Islamic law. The courts are presided over by religious judges, qadis. Members of the religious courts are appointed by the king on the recommendation of the High Council of Justice, composed of 12 senior lawyers. The King is the highest court of appeal and has the power to grant pardons.

Local authorities.

Saudi Arabia was divided into 13 provinces (emirates) by royal decree 1993. A 1994 decree subdivided the provinces into 103 districts. Power in the provinces belongs to governors (emirs) appointed by the king. The most important cities, such as Riyadh, Mecca and Medina, are headed by governors belonging to the royal family. Local affairs are under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Councils, whose members are appointed by the king from among the most noble families.

In 1975, the kingdom's authorities passed a law on municipal elections, but elected municipalities were never formed. In 2003, the intention was announced to hold the first municipal elections in the history of the kingdom. Half of the seats in 14 regional councils will be elected, the other half will be appointed by the Saudi government. The regional council elections are seen as a step towards reforms announced by King Fahd in May 2003.

Human rights.

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that refused to recognize some articles of the International Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 1948. According to the human rights organization Freedom House, Saudi Arabia is among the nine countries with the worst regime in the field of political and civil rights. Some of the most obvious human rights violations in Saudi Arabia include: mistreatment of prisoners; bans and restrictions in the field of freedom of speech, press, assembly and organization, religion; systematic discrimination against women, ethnic and religious minorities; and suppression of labor rights. The death penalty remains in the country; Since the 1991 Gulf War, Saudi Arabia has seen a steady increase in executions. In addition to public executions, arrests and imprisonment of dissidents are widely practiced in the kingdom.

Political parties and movements.

Despite the ban on the activities of political parties and trade unions, there are a number of oppositional political, public and religious organizations of various orientations in the country.

The left opposition includes a small number of nationalist and communist-oriented groups, relying mainly on foreign workers and national minorities, among them: Voice of the Vanguard, Saudi Arabian Communist Party, Arab Socialist Renaissance Party, Green Party, Socialist Labor Party, Socialist Front of Saudi Arabia, Union of the Peoples of the Arabian Peninsula, Front for the Liberation of the Occupied Areas of the Persian Gulf. In recent years, their activity has noticeably decreased, many groups have disbanded.

The liberal opposition is not organized organizationally. It is represented mainly by businessmen, intellectuals, technocrats and advocates for increased participation of various representatives of society in government, accelerated modernization of the country, political and judicial reforms, the introduction of Western democratic institutions, reducing the role of conservative religious circles and improving the status of women. The number of supporters of the liberal opposition is small, but in recent years, the royal regime, which seeks to maintain good relations with the West, has been forced to listen to its opinion more and more.

The most radical opposition force is the conservative and religiously fundamentalist Islamic circles of the Sunni and Shiite persuasion. The Islamist movement emerged in the 1950s as a conglomerate of informal groups, but it did not take its final shape until the early 1990s. Three currents stand out among the Sunni opposition: the moderate wing of traditionalist Wahhabism, the militant trend of neo-Wahhabism, and the liberally oriented current of supporters of Islamic reforms.

Traditionalists include many ulema, aged theologians, and once powerful tribal sheikhs. In the 1990s, traditionalists were represented by such organizations as the Ancestral Piety Imitation Group, the Quran Preservation Group, Monotheists, The Summoners, and others.

Neo-Wahhabis, according to many experts, rely on unemployed youth, teachers and theological students, as well as former mujahideen who fought in Afghanistan, Algeria, Bosnia and Chechnya. They sharply criticize the government for its actions during the Gulf War, foreign military presence in the country, modernization of society along Western lines, and advocate for Islamic values. Intelligence agencies assume that the most militant circles of neo-Wahhabism are associated with international terrorist organizations (Al-Qaeda, the Muslim Brotherhood) and may be behind a number of attacks on foreigners in the 1990s and early 2000s.

Moderate Islamists are represented by the Committee for the Defense of Legal Rights (formed in May 1993) and the Movement for Islamic Reform in Arabia (formed in March 1996 as a result of the Committee's split). Both groups operate primarily in Great Britain and in their statements combine radical Islamist rhetoric with demands for reforms in the political, social and economic spheres, expanding freedom of speech and assembly, contacts with Western countries, and respect for human rights.

Shiite Islamists represent the religious minority of the Eastern Province and advocate the abolition of all restrictions on Shiites and the freedom to practice their religion. The most radical Shiite groups are the Saudi Hezbollah (also known as the Hezbollah of the Hezbollah, up to 1,000 people) and the Islamic Jihad of the Hezbollah. More moderate is the Shiite Reform Movement, which emerged in the early 1990s on the basis of the Organization of the Islamic Revolution. Since 1991 it has published Al-Jazeera al-Arabiya in London and Arabian Monitor in Washington.

Foreign policy.

Saudi Arabia has been a member of the UN and the League of Arab States (LAS) since 1945, since 1957 - a member of the IMF and IBRD, since 1960 - a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Since 1948 he has been at war with Israel. Plays a significant and constructive role in the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank, Arab and Islamic institutions for financial assistance and development. One of the largest donors in the world, it provides assistance to a number of Arab, African and Asian countries. Since 1970, the headquarters of the Secretariat of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) and its subsidiary organization, the Islamic Development Bank, established in 1969, has been located in Jeddah.

Membership in OPEC and the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries facilitates the coordination of Saudi oil policy with other oil-exporting governments. As a leading oil exporter, Saudi Arabia has a particular interest in maintaining a stable and long-term market for its oil resources. All of its actions are aimed at stabilizing the world oil market and reducing sharp price surges.

One of the basic principles of Saudi Arabia's foreign policy is Islamic solidarity. The Saudi government often helps resolve regional crises and supports Israeli-Palestinian peace talks. As a member of the League of Arab States, Saudi Arabia supports the withdrawal of Israeli troops from the territories occupied in June 1967; supports a peaceful solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict, but at the same time condemns the Camp David Accords, which, in their opinion, are unable to guarantee the Palestinians' right to create their own state and determine the status of Jerusalem. The most recent Middle East peace plan was proposed by Crown Prince Abdullah in March 2002 at the annual Arab League summit. In accordance with it, Israel was proposed to withdraw all its forces from the territories occupied after 1967, return Palestinian refugees and recognize an independent Palestinian state with its capital in East Jerusalem. In exchange, Israel was guaranteed its recognition by all Arab countries and the restoration of "normal relations." However, as a result of the position taken by a number of Arab countries and Israel, the plan failed.

During the Gulf War (1990-1991), Saudi Arabia played a decisive role in building a broad international coalition. The Saudi Arabian government provided the coalition forces with water, food and fuel. In total, the country's expenses during the war amounted to $ 55 billion.

At the same time, the war in the Persian Gulf caused a deterioration in diplomatic relations with a number of Arab states. Only after the war were relations with Tunisia, Algeria and Libya restored to their previous level, which refused to condemn the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Saudi Arabia's relations with the countries that expressed support for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait - Yemen, Jordan and Sudan - remained extremely tense during the war and immediately after its end. One of the manifestations of this policy was the expulsion of over a million Yemeni workers from Saudi Arabia, which further exacerbated the existing border conflict. The pro-Iraqi position of the leadership of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) also led to a deterioration in its relations with Saudi Arabia and other countries of the Persian Gulf. Saudi Arabia's relations with Jordan and the Palestinian Authority were normalized only in the late 1990s, when the Saudi government's assistance to the Palestinian authorities was resumed. In July 2002, the Saudi kingdom transferred $ 46.2 million to the accounts of the Palestinian Authority. The Saudi Arabian government allocated another $ 15.4 million as gratuitous aid to the Palestinian National Authority (PNA) in October 2002. This payment was made within the framework of decisions the Arab League summit in Beirut (27-28 March 2002).

Saudi Arabia became one of the three countries that established diplomatic relations with the Afghan Taliban in 1997, which were interrupted in 2001. Since the beginning of the 21st century, especially after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, there have been signs of a cooling of relations with a number of Western countries caused by accusations in promoting international Islamic terrorism.

The country has diplomatic relations with the Russian Federation. First established from the USSR in 1926. The Soviet mission was withdrawn in 1938; in September 1990, an agreement was reached on the complete normalization of diplomatic relations between the USSR and Saudi Arabia; The embassy in Riyadh has been operating since May 1991.

Territorial conflicts.

In 1987, the demarcation of the border with Iraq was completed in the former neutral zone. In 1996, a division of the neutral zone on the border with Kuwait was carried out. In early July 2000, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait agreed to demarcate the maritime boundary; the dispute remains the Kuwaiti possessions of Karuh and the island of Umm al-Maradim. On June 12, 2000, a border agreement was concluded with Yemen, which established part of the border between the two countries. However, most of the border with Yemen is still undefined. Saudi Arabia's border with Qatar was finally established by agreements signed in June 1999 and March 2001. The position and status of the border with the United Arab Emirates has not been clarified; the current border de facto reflects the 1974 agreement. Similarly, the border with Oman remains undisturbed.

Military establishment.

Since the 1970s, Saudi Arabia has spent huge sums of money to expand and modernize its military. After the Gulf War in 1991, the country's armed forces were further increased and equipped with the latest weapons, most of which came from the United States. According to the International Institute for Strategic Studies, Saudi Arabia's military budget in 2002 was $ 18.7 billion, or 11% of GDP. The Armed Forces consist of the ground forces, the air and naval forces, the air defense forces, the National Guard, and the Ministry of the Interior. The supreme commander-in-chief is the king, the Ministry of Defense and the General Staff exercise direct control of the armed forces. All command positions are held by members of the ruling family. The total number of the regular armed forces is about 126.5 thousand people. (2001). The ground forces (75 thousand people) have 9 armored, 5 mechanized, 1 airborne brigades, 1 regiment of the Royal Guard, 8 artillery battalions. In service with 1055 tanks, 3105 armored personnel carriers, St. 1000 pieces of artillery and rocket launchers. The Air Force (20 thousand people) are armed with St. 430 combat aircraft and approx. 100 helicopters. The air defense forces (16 thousand people) include 33 missile divisions. The Navy (15.5 thousand people) consists of two fleets, is armed with approx. 100 combat and support ships. The main naval bases are Jeddah and Jubail. In the mid-1950s, from the tribal militias loyal to the royal family, the National Guard was also created (about 77 thousand, including 20 thousand tribal militias), which, according to Western experts, significantly exceeds the regular forces in the level of training and weapons. Its task is to ensure the security of the ruling dynasty, the protection of oil fields, airfields, ports, as well as the suppression of anti-government protests. In addition to the regular armed forces, there is also the Border Guard Corps (10.5 thousand) and the Coast Guard troops (4.5 thousand). The recruitment of the armed forces is carried out on the principle of voluntary recruitment.

ECONOMY

Currently, the basis of the economy of Saudi Arabia is free private enterprise. Meanwhile, the government exercises control over the main areas of economic activity. Saudi Arabia has the largest oil reserves in the world, is considered the largest oil exporter and plays a leading role in OPEC. Proved reserves of crude oil are 261.7 billion barrels, or 35 billion tons (26% of all reserves), and natural gas - about 6.339 trillion. cub. m (as of January 2002). Oil brings the country up to 90% of export revenues, 75% of government revenues and 35–45% of GDP. Approximately 25% of GDP comes from the private sector. In 1992, Saudi Arabia's GDP was equivalent to $ 112.98 billion, or $ 6,042 per capita. In 1997, the GDP was $ 146.25 billion, or $ 7792 per capita; in 1999 it increased to $ 191 billion, or $ 9 thousand per person; in 2001 - up to 241 billion dollars, or 8460 dollars per person. However, real economic growth lags behind the increase in the number of inhabitants, which leads to unemployment and a decrease in per capita income. The share of sectors of the economy not related to oil production and refining in GDP increased from 46% in 1970 to 67% in 1992 (in 1996 it dropped to 65%).

In 1999, the government announced plans to begin privatizing electricity companies, following the privatization of telecommunications companies. To reduce the kingdom's dependence on oil and to increase employment for the rapidly growing Saudi population, the private sector has exploded in recent years. The main priorities of the government of Saudi Arabia in the near future is the allocation of additional funds for the development of water infrastructure and education, since the lack of water and rapid population growth do not allow the country to fully provide itself with agricultural products.

The oil industry and its role.

The largest holder of oil concessions and the main oil producer is the Arabien American Oil Company (ARAMCO). Since the early 1970s, it has been under the control of the Saudi Arabian government, and before that it was wholly owned by a consortium of American companies. The company received a concession in 1933 and began exporting oil in 1938. The Second World War interrupted the development of the oil industry, which resumed in 1943, with the construction of an oil refinery at the Ras Tanura oil port. Oil production gradually increased from 2.7 thousand tons / day to 1944 to 33.5 thousand tons / day in 1947 and 68.1 thousand tons / day in 1949. By 1977, daily oil production in Saudi Arabia had increased to 1, 25 million tons and remained high throughout the 1980s, until it began to decline as a result of a decrease in oil demand in the world market. In 1992, approx. 1.15 million tons / day, with 97% of production coming from ARAMCO. Oil is also being produced by other smaller companies, such as the Japanese Arabien Oil Company, which operates in coastal waters near the Kuwaiti border, and the Getty Oil Company, which operates onshore near the Kuwaiti border. In 1996, Saudi Arabia's quota, determined by OPEC, was approx. 1.17 million tons per day. In 2001, the average production was 8.6 billion barrels / day (460 billion tons / year). In addition, it uses the reserves located in the so-called "neutral zone" on the border with Kuwait, which give it an additional 600 thousand barrels of oil per day. The largest oil fields are located in the eastern part of the country, on the Persian Gulf coast or offshore.

Major refineries: Aramco - Ras Tanura (capacity 300 thousand barrels / day), Rabig (325 thousand barrels / day), Yanbu (190 thousand barrels / day), Riyadh (140 thousand barrels / day), Jeddah ( 42 thousand barrels / day), Aramco-Mobile - Yanbu (332 thousand barrels / day), Petromin / Shell - al-Jubeyl (292 thousand barrels / day).

The most important factor in the development of the oil industry is the close and mutually beneficial relationship between ARAMCO and Saudi Arabia. ARAMCO's activities contributed to the influx of skilled personnel into the country and the creation of new jobs for the Saudis.

Significant changes in relations between the oil companies and the government of Saudi Arabia began in 1972. In accordance with the agreement signed by the parties, the government received 25% of ARAMCO's property. It was found that Saudi Arabia's stake would gradually increase to 51% by 1982. However, in 1974 the government accelerated this process and acquired 60% of ARAMCO's shares. In 1976 the oil companies pledged to transfer all of ARAMCO's property to Saudi Arabia. In 1980 all ARAMCO property passed to the Saudi Arabian government. In 1984, a Saudi Arabian citizen became the president of the company for the first time. Since 1980, the Saudi Arabian government began to determine the prices of oil and the volume of its production itself, and oil companies received the rights to develop oil fields as subcontractors of the government.

The growth in oil production was accompanied by a significant increase in revenues from its sale, especially after a fourfold jump in oil prices in 1973-1974, which led to a huge increase in government revenues, which increased from $ 334 million in 1960 to $ 2.7 billion in 1972, $ 30 billion in 1974, $ 33.5 billion in 1976 and $ 102 billion in 1981. Subsequently, the demand for oil in the world market began to decline, and by 1989 Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports fell to $ 24 billion. The crisis that began after Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 raised world oil prices again; Accordingly, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports increased in 1991 to nearly $ 43.5 billion.In 1998, as a result of a sharp drop in world oil prices at the beginning of the year, Saudi Arabia's revenues from oil exports amounted to $ 43.7 billion.

Industry.

The share of industry in the country's GDP is 47% (1998). Industrial production growth in 1997 was 1%. In the past, the industry in Saudi Arabia was underdeveloped, especially the industries not related to the extraction and processing of oil. In 1962, the government General Organization for Oil and Mineral Resources (PETROMIN) was created, whose task is to develop the oil and mining industry, as well as to create new oil, mining and metallurgical enterprises. In 1975, the Ministry of Industry and Energy was formed, to which the responsibility for PETROMIN's enterprises not related to oil production and refining was transferred. PETROMIN's largest projects were a steel plant in Jeddah, built in 1968, and refineries in Jeddah and Riyadh, built in the late 1960s and early 1970s. PETROMIN also provided 51% of the funds for the construction of a nitrogen fertilizer plant in Dammam, completed in 1970.

In 1976, the government-owned Saudi Arabian Heavy Industry Corporation (SABIK) was created, a holding company with an initial capital of $ 2.66 billion.By 1994, SABIK owned 15 large enterprises in Jubail, Yanbu and Jeddah that produced chemicals, plastics, industrial gas , steel and other metals. Saudi Arabia has well-developed food and glass industries, handicrafts and construction materials, in particular cement. In 1996 the volume of industrial production amounted to approx. 55% of GDP.

Back in the 1st millennium BC. the inhabitants of the Arabian Peninsula mined gold, silver and copper at deposits located approximately 290 km northeast of Jeddah. Currently, these deposits are being developed again, and in 1992 approx. 5 tons of gold.

Electricity production in Saudi Arabia increased from 344 MW in 1970 to 17049 MW in 1992. To date, approx. 6,000 cities and rural settlements throughout the country. In 1998, electricity production was 19,753 MW, with an annual increase of 4.5% in electricity demand expected over the next two decades. To meet them, it will be necessary to increase electricity production to about 59,000 MW.

Agriculture.

The share of agriculture in the country's GDP increased from 1.3% in 1970 to over 6.4% in 1993 and 6% in 1998. During this period, the production of basic food products increased from 1.79 million tons to 7 million tons. Saudi Arabia is completely devoid of permanent watercourses. The land suitable for cultivation occupies 7 million hectares, or less than 2% of its territory. Despite the fact that the average annual rainfall is only 100 mm, agriculture in Saudi Arabia, using modern technologies and equipment, is a dynamically developing industry. The area of ​​cultivated land increased from 161.8 thousand hectares in 1976 to 3 million hectares in 1993, and Saudi Arabia transformed from a country that imported most of its food into an exporter of food. In 1992, agricultural production amounted to $ 5.06 billion in monetary terms, while the export of wheat, dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, vegetables and flowers brought in income of $ 533 million. 1985 to 1995 increased by 6.0% per year. The country also produces barley, corn, millet, coffee, alfalfa and rice. An important industry is animal husbandry, represented by the breeding of camels, sheep, goats, donkeys and horses.

Long-term hydrological research, begun in 1965, has revealed significant water resources suitable for agricultural use. In addition to deep wells throughout the country, the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Agriculture and Water Resources uses more than 200 reservoirs with a total capacity of 450 million cubic meters. m. The country is the world's largest producer of desalinated water. In the mid-1990s, 33 desalination plants daily desalinated 2.2 billion liters of seawater, thus meeting 70% of the population's drinking water needs.

The Al-Khas agricultural project, completed in 1977, alone irrigated 12,000 hectares and provided jobs for 50,000 people. Other major irrigation projects include the Wadi Jizan project on the Red Sea coast (8,000 ha) and the Abha project in the Asira Mountains in the southwest. In 1998, the government announced a new $ 294 million agricultural development project. The Ministry of Agriculture's budget increased from $ 395 million in 1997 to $ 443 million in 1998.

Transport.

Until the 1950s, transportation of goods within Saudi Arabia was carried out mainly by camel caravans. The Hejaz railway built in 1908 (1,300 km, including 740 km along the Hejaz) has not functioned since the First World War. For the transportation of pilgrims, a car connection was used along the Najef (in Iraq) - Hail - Medina highway.

The start of oil production completely changed the country's economy and ensured its rapid growth. The impetus for the rapid development was the creation of a network of roads, ports and communications. In the 1970s –1990s, an extensive road network was created that connected vast arid regions located in remote parts of the country. The largest highway crosses the Arabian Peninsula from Dammam on the Persian Gulf via Riyadh and Mecca to Jeddah on the Red Sea. In 1986, the construction of a 24-kilometer highway was completed, laid along the dam connecting Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. As a result of large-scale construction, the length of paved roads increased from 1,600 km in 1960 to more than 44,104 km of highways and 102,420 km of unpaved roads in 1997.

The railway network has expanded significantly. There is one railway linking Riyadh through the Khufuf oasis with the port of Dammam on the Persian Gulf (571 km); all R. In the 1980s, the railroad was extended to the industrial center of Jubail, north of Dammam; in 1972, a branch was built from the main highway to El-Kharj (35.5 km). The total length of railways is 1392 km (2002).

An extensive network of pipelines has been created in the country: the length of crude oil pipelines - 6400 km, oil products - 150 km, gas pipelines - 2200 km (including liquid natural gas - 1600 km). A large trans-Arabian oil pipeline connects the oil fields of the Persian Gulf with ports in the Red Sea. The main ports in the Persian Gulf are Ras Tanura, Dammam, Khobar and Mina Saud; on the Red Sea: Jeddah (through which the bulk of imports and the main flow of pilgrims to Mecca and Medina go), Jizan and Yanbu.

Foreign trade transportation is carried out mainly by sea. The Saudi National Shipping Company has 21 vessels for the transportation of petroleum products. In total, the merchant marine fleet comprises 71 vessels with a carrying capacity of 1.53 million dwt (including a number of vessels sailing under foreign flags).

There are three international (in Riyadh, Jeddah and Dhahran) and 206 regional and local airports and aircraft sites, as well as five helicopter stations (2002). The aircraft fleet consists of 113 transport and passenger aircraft. Air lines of Saudi Arabien Airlines connect Riyadh with the capitals of the Near and Middle East.

The state budget.

The budget of Saudi Arabia in 1993-1994 was $ 46.7 billion, in 1992-1993 - $ 52.5 billion, and in 1983-1984 - $ 69.3 billion. Such fluctuations were the result of falling export earnings oil, providing 80% of all state revenues. However, in fiscal 1994, $ 11.5 billion was allocated to construction and renovation programs and $ 7.56 billion to higher education, universities, industrial development, and other development projects such as improving salinization. soil and electrification. In 2003, the revenue side of the budget of Saudi Arabia amounted to $ 46 billion, and the expenditure side - 56.5 billion dollars, in 2000 the revenue side of the budget - 41.9 billion dollars, the expenditure side - 49.4 billion dollars, in 1997 budget revenues - $ 43 billion, and expenditure - $ 48 billion, the budget deficit amounted to $ 5 billion.Expenditures in the 1998 budget are planned at $ 47 billion, and revenues - $ 52 billion. Since the end of 1999, rapidly rising oil prices have allowed the country to obtain a budget surplus ($ 12 billion in 2000). The country's external debt fell from $ 28 billion (1998) to $ 25.9 billion (2003).

Since 1970, five-year development plans have been adopted. The fifth five-year plan (1990-1995) focused on strengthening the private sector, developing education, health and social services; they also provided for an increase in defense spending. The sixth five-year development plan (1995-1999) provided for the continuation of the economic policy of the previous period. The main focus is on the development of economic activity in sectors of the economy not related to the oil industry, primarily in the private sector, with a particular emphasis on industry and agriculture. The Seventh Five-Year Plan (1999-2003) focuses on economic diversification and strengthening the role of the private sector in the Saudi economy. During 2000-2004, the Saudi government intends to achieve an average annual GNP growth of 3.16%, with an expected growth of 5.04% in the private sector and 4.01% in non-oil sectors. The government has also set a goal to create 817,300 new vacancies for Saudi nationals.

External economic relations

Saudi Arabia reflect its role as the world's leading oil exporter. Most of the profits from foreign trade were invested abroad and went to help foreign countries, in particular Egypt, Jordan and other Arab countries. Even after the fall in oil prices in the mid and late 1980s, the country retained a positive foreign trade balance: if in 1991 imports totaled $ 29.6 billion, and exports totaled $ 48.5 billion, then in 2001 these indicators were rose to 39.5 and 71 billion dollars, respectively. As a result, the trade surplus increased from $ 18.9 billion (1991) to $ 31.5 billion (2001).

Saudi Arabia's main imports are industrial equipment, vehicles, weapons, food, construction materials, scientific equipment, chemical products, textiles and clothing. The main flow of imports comes from the USA (16.6%), Japan (10.4%), Great Britain (6.1%), Germany (7.4%), France (5%), Italy (4%) (by 2001). The government has pledged to make appropriate changes to trade, investment and tax laws in preparation for joining the World Trade Organization (WTO).

The main export item is oil and oil products (90%). In 2001, the main exporting countries were: Japan (15.8%), USA (18.5%), South Korea (10.3%), Singapore (5.4%), India (3.5%). Crude, which provides the bulk of export earnings, is shipped to the United States, Japan and Western Europe. Due to the growth of industrial production, Saudi Arabia began to export petrochemical products, consumer goods and food products. In 1997, the country's foreign exchange reserves amounted to $ 7.57 billion.

Saudi Arabia is one of the world's largest economic donors: in 1993 it provided $ 100 million for the reconstruction of Lebanon; since 1993 the country has transferred $ 208 million in aid to the Palestinians.

Monetary system.

Since 1928: 1 sovereign = 10 riyals = 110 kersh, since 1952: 1 sovereign = 40 riyals = 440 kersham, since 1960: 1 Saudi riyal = 100 halal. The functions of the central bank are performed by the Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency.

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Religion.

Religion has always played a dominant role in Saudi society and still determines the way of life for the majority of the population. Most of the inhabitants of Saudi Arabia, including the ruling house of the Saudis, belong to the followers of Wahhabism, one of the currents in Islam, which got its name from a man who lived in the 18th century. reformer Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab. They call themselves muvahhids, "monotheists", or simply Muslims. Wahhabism is an ascetic, puritanical movement within the framework of the most strict in Sunni Islam, the Hanbalist religious and legal school (madhhab), in which special attention is paid to the strict observance of the precepts of Islam. The Wahhabis are the keepers of the sacred places, under their control is the pilgrimage to Mecca. There are also followers of other streams of Sunni Islam in Saudi Arabia - in Asir, Hejaz and Eastern Arabia. Al-Has, in the east of the country, is home to a significant number of Shiites (15%). The Constitution of Saudi Arabia contains a categorical prescription for the citizens of the country to practice Islam. Non-Muslim religions are only allowed among foreign workers. Any public manifestations of belonging to a non-Muslim religion (body crosses, the Bible, etc.), the sale of goods with non-Islamic symbols, as well as public worship are strictly prohibited. Persons caught in the "illegal practice" of their religion may be subject to judicial punishment or expulsion from the country. The entire social and cultural life of the country is governed by the Muslim Lunar Calendar (Lunar Hijra), such events as the pilgrimage to Mecca (Hajj), the monthly fast (Ramadan), the holiday of breaking the fast (Eid al-Fitr), the holiday of sacrifice (id al-adha).

At the head of the religious community is the Council of Ulema, which interprets Muslim laws. Each city has a public morality committee that oversees the implementation of the rules of conduct. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Council of Ulema opposed the introduction of phones, radios and cars in Saudi Arabia on the grounds that such innovations were contrary to Sharia law. Nevertheless, changing conditions, in particular the growth of prosperity and the emergence of Western technology in Saudi Arabia, led to a compromise between the requirements of modern life and the restrictions of Sharia. Over time, the problem was resolved. This was formalized by a decree of the Council of Ulema (fatwa), which declared that Western innovations, from airplanes and television to commercial law, did not contradict Islam. However, most of the strict Wahhabi rules continue to apply, for example, all women, Arab or European, are prohibited from communicating with men in public and from driving.

Lifestyle.

The nomadic Arabs who inhabit the desert regions roam between pastures and oases in search of food and water. Their traditional dwellings are tents woven from black sheep and goat wool. Sedentary Arabs are characterized by dwellings made of sun-dried bricks, whitewashed or painted with ocher. Slums, once quite common, are now rare thanks to government housing policies.

The main food of the Arabs is mutton, lamb, chicken and game, seasoned with rice and raisins. Common dishes include soups and stews made with onions and lentils. A lot of fruits are eaten, especially dates and figs, as well as nuts and vegetables. A popular drink is coffee. Camel, sheep and goat milk is used. Ghee made from sheep's milk (dakhn) is usually used for cooking.

The situation of women.

Men play the dominant role in Saudi society. A woman cannot appear in a public place without a veil on her face and a cape that covers her body from head to toe. Even in her house, she may not cover her face only in front of men from her family. The female (“forbidden”) half of the house, harim (hence the word “harem”), is separated from the part where guests are received. Bedouin women tend to be freer; they may appear in society without a veil on their face and talk with strangers, nevertheless they occupy a separate tent or part of the family tent. The marriage is considered a civil contract and is accompanied by a financial agreement between the spouses, which must be registered with the religious court. And although romantic love is a perennial theme in Arabic, especially Bedouin poetry, marriages are usually organized without the participation or consent of the bride and groom. The main responsibility of a wife is to look after her husband and meet his needs, as well as bring up children. Typically, marriages are monogamous, although a man is allowed to have up to four wives. Only the wealthiest citizens can afford to enjoy this privilege, but even so, preference is given to one over several wives. The husband can at any time turn to the judge (qadi) with a demand for a divorce, and the only restrictions for him are the marriage contract and relations between the families concerned. A woman can apply to a qadi for divorce only if there are grounds for this, for example, mistreatment by her husband and poor maintenance, or sexual neglect.

Healthcare.

The country has a free health care system. Due to high health care costs (over 8% of the budget), health care in the kingdom has reached a very high level in recent decades. It applies to almost the entire population of the country - from residents of large cities to the Bedouin tribes roaming the desert. In 2003, the birth rate was 37.2, the mortality rate was 5.79 per 1,000 people; infant mortality - 47 per 1,000 newborns. The average life expectancy is 68 years. Immunization of infants and young children is mandatory. The establishment of an epidemic control system in 1986 made it possible to eliminate diseases such as cholera, plague and yellow fever. The health care structure is mixed. In 1990-1991, there were 163 hospitals (25,835 beds) operating in the country, subordinated to the Ministry of Health. About 1/3 of medical institutions belonged to other ministries and departments (3785 beds). In addition, there were 64 private hospitals (6479 beds). There were 12,959 doctors (544 patients per doctor) and 29,124 nurses.

Education.

Education is free and open to all citizens, although not compulsory. In 1926, a law was passed on compulsory primary education and on the creation of secular public schools. In 1954, the Ministry of Education was created and began implementing educational programs that focused on primary education and vocational training, as well as religious education. In the late 1950s, these programs covered secondary and higher education. In 1960, a law was passed on the compulsory education of girls, women's pedagogical schools were opened, and in 1964 a law was passed on the opening of higher educational institutions for girls.

For many years, spending on education ranked second in the budget, and in 1992 this item even moved to the first place. In 1995, government spending on education was $ 12 billion, or 12% of all spending. In 1994, the education system included 7 universities, 83 institutes and 18 thousand schools, in 1996 - 21 thousand schools (290 thousand teachers). In the 1996/1997 academic year, approx. 3.8 million children. The age of admission to school is 6 years. Primary school is 6 years old, secondary school consists of two stages: junior high school (3 years) and upper secondary (3 years). The education of boys and girls is separate. In the early 1990s, girls made up 44% of the 3 million primary and secondary school students and 46% of the total university student population. The education for girls is directed by a special supervisory board, which also oversees educational programs for adult women. Students are provided with textbooks and medical care. There is a special department dealing with schools for sick children. In accordance with the Fifth 5-Year Development Plan, $ 1.6 billion was allocated for the development of technical education and vocational training in such areas as medicine, agriculture, education, etc.

There are 16 universities and 7 universities in the country. The universities are run by the Ministry of Higher Education. These include the University of Islamic Studies in Medina (founded in 1961), the University of Petroleum and Mineral Resources. King Fahd in Dhahran, University. King Abd al-Aziz in Jeddah (founded in 1967), University. King Faisal (with branches in Dammam and El-Khufuf) (founded in 1975), Islamic University. Imam Muhammad ibn Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1950, university status since 1974), Umm al-Quur University in Mecca (founded in 1979) and the University. King Saud in Riyadh (founded in 1957). The number of university students in 1996 was 143 787 people, the teaching staff - 9490 people. About 30 thousand students study abroad.

Thanks to state educational programs, the authorities managed to significantly reduce the level of illiteracy among the population. If in 1972 the number of illiterates reached 80% of the population, then by 2003 it was 21.2% (men - 15.3%, women - 29.2%).

The largest libraries.

National Library (founded 1968), Saud Library, University Library in Riyadh, Mahmoudiya Library, Arif Hikmat Library and University Library in Medina.

Culture.

Religion permeates the entire society: it shapes and determines the cultural and artistic life of the country. Historically, Saudi Arabia has not been subject to the foreign cultural influences experienced by other Arab states. The country lacks literary traditions comparable to those of the Arab countries of the Mediterranean. Perhaps the only known Saudi writers are historians of the late 19th century, of whom Osman ibn Bishra can be considered the most famous. The lack of literary traditions in Saudi Arabia is partly offset by deep-rooted traditions of oral prose and poetry dating back to pre-Islamic times. Music is not a traditional art form in Saudi Arabia. Its development in recent decades as a means of artistic expression has been nullified by the ban imposed by the Ulema Council on its performance for entertainment purposes. Performers of folk music and songs are few, and they are all men. Among the most famous musical performers are the first pop star of Saudi Arabia Abdu Majid-i-Abdallah and the virtuoso of the Arab lute (oud) Abadi al-Johar. Egyptian pop music is also popular in the country. The same strict ban has been imposed on the depiction of human faces and figures in painting and sculpture, although this does not apply to photography. Artistic pursuits are limited to the creation of architectural designs such as friezes and mosaics, which incorporate traditional forms of Islamic art.

Wahhabism does not approve of the construction of exquisitely decorated mosques, so modern religious architecture is inexpressive, in contrast to the ancient, more aesthetically interesting (for example, the Kaaba sanctuary in Mecca). The most significant religious architectural work of recent years appears to be the restoration and decoration of the mosque at the Prophet's burial site in Medina, and the significant expansion and renovation of the Great Mosque in Mecca. The severity of religious architecture is offset by the flourishing of civil architecture. In cities, palaces, public buildings and private houses are being built on a large scale; most of them harmoniously combine modern ideas and traditional design.

There are no theaters and public cinemas in the country, shows and performances are prohibited.

Printing, radio broadcasting, television, internet.

The Saudi media are the most regulated in the entire Arab world. They are not allowed to criticize the government and the royal family or question religious institutions. Only from 2002-2003 there were signs of liberalization of state policy in relation to the media. The press and television began to cover topics that were previously considered taboo. Newspapers in Saudi Arabia can only be established by royal decree. 10 daily newspapers and several dozen magazines are published (2003). In Arabic: "Al-Bilyad", since 1934, circulation 30 thousand copies; Al-Jazeera; "An-Nadwa", since 1958, 35 thousand copies; Al-Medina al-Munawwara, from 1937, 55 thousand copies; "Riyadh", since 1964, 140 thousand copies; Arab News. The government news agency is the Saudi Press Agency (SPA), founded in 1970.

Broadcasting since 1948, there are 76 state-controlled radio stations (1998) broadcasting news bulletins, oratorical speeches, sermons, educational and religious programs. Since 2002, the opposition radio station Voice of Reforms, which belongs to the Movement for Islamic Reforms in Arabia, has also been broadcasting from Europe.

Television has existed since 1965, there are 3 television networks and 117 television stations (1997). All television and radio broadcasting is carried out by the State Broadcasting Service of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. The Minister of Culture and Information is the Chairman of the Radio and Television Supervision Department.

The cellular telephone network has existed since 1981; Internet - since the late 1990s, there are 22 Internet Service Providers (2003), 1453 thousand registered users (2002). According to unofficial data, 2/3 of Internet users are women. Government censorship and security systems are in place to block access to websites deemed offensive by Islamic morality. In total, access to several thousand websites is blocked.

HISTORY

Since ancient times (2000 BC) the territory of the Arabian Peninsula was inhabited by nomadic Arab tribes who called themselves "al-Arab" (Arabs). In the 1st millennium BC. In different parts of the peninsula, the ancient Arab states began to take shape - the Minea (up to 650 BC), the Sabean (c. 750-115 BC), the Himyarite kingdom (c. 25 BC - 577 AD) .). In the 6th and 2nd centuries. BC. in the north of Arabia there are slave states (the Nabataean kingdom, which became a Roman province in 106 AD, and others). The development of caravan trade between South Arabia and the states of the Mediterranean coast contributed to the development of such centers as Makoraba (Mecca) and Yathrib (Medina). In the 2nd - 5th centuries. on the peninsula, Judaism and Christianity are spreading. Religious communities of Christians and Jews are emerging on the coast of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, as well as in the Hejaz, Najran and Yemen. At the end of the 5th century. AD in Najd, an alliance of Arab tribes was formed, led by the Kinda tribe. Subsequently, his influence spread to a number of neighboring regions, including Hadhramaut and the eastern regions of Arabia. After the collapse of the union (529 AD), Mecca became the most important political center of Arabia, where in 570 AD. the prophet Muhammad was born. During this period, the country became the object of a struggle between the Ethiopian and Persian dynasties. All R. 6 c. the Arabs, led by the Quraish tribe, managed to repel the attack of the Ethiopian rulers who were trying to seize Mecca. In the 7th century. AD in the western part of the Arabian Peninsula, a new religion, Islam, arose, and the first Muslim theocratic state was formed - the Arab Caliphate with its capital in Medina. Under the leadership of the caliphs at the end of the 7th century. wars of conquest are unfolding outside the Arabian Peninsula. The movement of the capital of the Caliphates from Medina, first to Damascus (661), and then to Baghdad (749), led to the fact that Arabia became the outskirts of a huge state. In the 7-8 centuries. most of the territory of modern Saudi Arabia was part of the Umayyad Caliphate, in the 8th and 9th centuries. - Abbasids. With the fall of the Abbasid Caliphate, many small independent state formations arose on the territory of the Arabian Peninsula. Hijaz, which retained its significance as the religious center of Islam, at the end of the 10th – 12th centuries. remained in vassal dependence on the Fatimids, in the 12-13 centuries. - Ayyubids, and then - Mamluks (from 1425). In 1517, Western Arabia, including Hejaz and Asir, was subordinated to the Ottoman Empire. All R. 16th century the rule of the Turkish sultans extended to Al-Hasa, an area on the coast of the Persian Gulf. From that moment until the end of the First World War, Western and Eastern Arabia were (intermittently) part of the Ottoman Empire. Najd enjoyed much greater independence, the population of which was made up of Bedouins and farmers of oases. This entire area was a huge number of small feudal state formations with independent rulers in almost every village and city, constantly at war with each other.

The first Saudi state.

The roots of the state structure of modern Saudi Arabia lie in the religious reform movement of the mid-18th century, called Wahhabism. It was founded by Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab (1703-1792) and supported by Muhammad ibn Saud (reigned 1726 / 27-1765), the chief of the Anayza tribe who inhabited the Ad-Diriyya region of central Najd. By the mid-1780s, the Saudis had established themselves throughout Najd. They managed to unite part of the tribes of central and eastern Arabia into a religious-political confederation, the purpose of which was to spread the Wahhabi teachings and the power of the Nedzhd emirs to the entire Arabian Peninsula. After the death of al-Wahhab (1792), Ibn Saud's son, Emir Abdel Aziz I ibn Muhammad al-Saud (1765-1803), took the title of Imam, which meant unification in his hands of both secular and spiritual power. Relying on the alliance of the Wahhabi tribes, he raised the banner of the "holy war", demanding from the neighboring sheikhs and sultanates to recognize the Wahhabi teachings and jointly oppose the Ottoman Empire. Having formed a large army (up to 100 thousand people), Abdel Aziz in 1786 set about conquering the neighboring lands. In 1793, the Wahhabis seized Al-Hasa, seized El-Katif by storm, where they finally fortified themselves by 1795. The Ottoman Empire's attempt to restore its power over Al-Hasa failed (1798). Simultaneously with the struggle for the Persian Gulf region, the Wahhabis launched an offensive on the coast of the Red Sea, raiding the outskirts of the Hejaz and Yemen and capturing the oases along the borders. By 1803, almost all the coast of the Persian Gulf and the adjacent islands (including Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and most of Oman and Muscat) were subordinated to the Wahhabis. In the south, Asir (1802) and Abu-Arish (1803) were conquered. In 1801, Abdel Aziz's armies invaded Iraq and ravaged the Shiite holy city of Karbala. After killing over 4 thousand townspeople and taking the treasures, they retreated back into the desert. The expedition sent after them to Arabia was defeated. Attacks on the cities of Mesopotamia and Syria continued until 1812, but outside the Arabian Peninsula, al-Wahhab's teachings did not find support among the local population. The devastation of cities in Iraq revived the entire Shiite community against the Wahhabis. In 1803, as a sign of revenge for the desecration of the shrines of Karbala, Abdel Aziz was killed by a Shiite right in the Ad-Diriyi mosque. But under his heir, Emir Saud I ibn Abdel Aziz (1803–1814), the Wahhabi expansion continued with renewed vigor. In April 1803, Mecca was taken by the Wahhabis, a year later - Medina, and by 1806 the entire Hijaz was subdued.

Since the end of the 18th century. the increasing frequency of Wahhabi raids began to worry the rulers of the Ottoman Empire more and more. With the seizure of the Hejaz by the Wahhabis, the Saudis' power extended to the holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina. Almost the entire territory of the Arabian Peninsula was included in the Wahhabi state. Saud received the title "hadim-al-haramayn" ("servant of the holy cities"), which gave him the opportunity to claim supremacy in the Muslim world. The loss of the Hijaz was a serious blow to the prestige of the Ottoman Empire, whose clergy issued a fatwa, an official religious edict, outlawing the followers of al-Wahhab. The army of the Egyptian ruler (wali) Muhammad Ali was sent to suppress the Wahhabis. However, in December 1811, the Egyptian army was completely defeated. Despite the first defeat and desperate resistance of the Wahhabis, the Egyptians took Medina in November 1812, and Mecca, Taif and Jeddah in January of the following year. They re-established the annual pilgrimage to holy places, which the Wahhabis had banned, and returned control of the Hijaz to the Hashemites. After the death of Saud in May 1814, his son Abdullah ibn Saud ibn Abdel Aziz became the emir of Najd. At the beginning of 1815, the Egyptians inflicted a series of heavy defeats on the Wahhabis forces. The Wahhabis were defeated in the Hejaz, Asir and strategically important areas between the Hejaz and Nejd. However, in May 1815, Muhammad Ali had to urgently leave Arabia. Peace was signed in the spring of 1815. Under the terms of the treaty, the Hijaz came under the control of the Egyptians, and the Wahhabis retained only the regions of Central and Northeastern Arabia. Emir Abdullah promised to obey the Egyptian governor of Medina, and also recognized himself as a vassal of the Turkish Sultan. He also pledged to ensure the safety of the Hajj and return the treasures stolen by the Wahhabis in Mecca. But the truce was short-lived, and in 1816 the war resumed. In 1817, as a result of a successful offensive, the Egyptians took the fortified settlements of Er-Rass, Buraydah and Unayzu. The commander of the Egyptian forces, Ibrahim Pasha, with the support of most of the tribes, invaded Najd in early 1818 and laid siege to Ed-Diriyya in April 1818. After a five-month siege, the city fell (September 15, 1818). The last ruler of Ed-Diriyyah, Abdullah ibn Saud, surrendered at the mercy of the victors, was sent first to Cairo, then to Istanbul, and there he was publicly executed. Other Saudis were taken to Egypt. Ad-Diriyya was destroyed. In all the cities of Najd, fortifications were torn down and Egyptian garrisons were placed. In 1819, the entire territory formerly belonging to the Saudis was annexed to the possessions of the Egyptian ruler Muhammad Ali.

Second Saudi state.

However, the Egyptian occupation lasted only a few years. The discontent of the indigenous population with the Egyptians contributed to the revival of the Wahhabi movement. In 1820, an uprising broke out in Ed-Diriyah led by Misrahi ibn Saud, one of the relatives of the executed emir. Although it was suppressed, the Wahhabis managed to recover from defeat a year later and, under the leadership of Imam Turki ibn Abdallah (1822-1834), who returned from exile, the grandson of Muhammad ibn Saud and Abdullah's cousin, restored the Saudi state. From the destroyed Ed-Diriyah, their capital was moved to Riyadh (c. 1822). In an effort to maintain friendly relations with the Ottoman rulers of Iraq, the Turks recognized the nominal suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire. The Egyptian troops sent against the Wahhabis died of hunger, thirst, epidemics and partisan raids. Egyptian garrisons remained in Kasim and Shammar, but they were driven out from there in 1827. Having broken the resistance of the recalcitrant Bedouin tribes, the Wahhabis by 1830 again seized the coast of Al-Hasa and forced the sheikhs of Bahrain to pay them tribute. Three years later, they subdued the entire coast of the Persian Gulf south of El Katif, including parts of Oman and Muscat. Only the Hejaz remained under the control of Egypt, which was transformed into an Egyptian province headed by a governor. Despite the loss of central and eastern Arabia, the Egyptians continued to influence the political life of these areas. In 1831, they supported the claims to the Wahhabi throne of Mashari ibn Khalid, a cousin of Turki. A long period of power struggle began in the country. In 1834 Mashari, with the help of the Egyptians, took possession of Riyadh, killed the Turks and sat down in its place. However, a month later Faisal ibn Turki, relying on the support of the army, dealt with Mashari and became the new ruler of Najd (1834-1838, 1843-1865). This turn of events did not suit Muhammad Ali. The reason for a new war was Faisal's refusal to pay tribute to Egypt. In 1836, an Egyptian expeditionary army invaded Najd and captured Riyadh a year later; Faisal was captured, sent to Cairo, where he remained until 1843. Khalid I ibn Saud (1838–1842), the son of Saud and brother of Abdullah, who had previously been in Egyptian captivity, was put in his place. In 1840, Egyptian troops were withdrawn from the Arabian Peninsula, which was used by the Wahhabis, who expressed dissatisfaction with the pro-Egyptian course of Khalid. In 1841, Abdullah ibn Tunayan declared himself the ruler of Najd; Riyadh was captured by his supporters, the garrison was destroyed, and Khalid, who was at that moment in Al-Has, fled by ship to Jeddah. Abdullah's reign was also short-lived. In 1843 he was overthrown by Faisal ibn Turki, who had returned from captivity. In a relatively short time, Faisal was able to restore the virtually disintegrated emirate. Over the next three decades, the Wahhabi Najd returned to play a leading role in the political life of central and eastern Arabia. During this period, the Wahhabis twice (1851-1852, 1859) tried to establish their control over Bahrain, Qatar, the Treaty Coast and the interior regions of Oman. For a short moment, the Saudis' possession again spread over a large area from Jabel Shammar in the north to the borders of Yemen in the south. Their further advance on the Persian Gulf coast was stopped only by the intervention of Great Britain. At the same time, the central government of Riyadh remained weak, the vassal tribes often feuded among themselves and raised uprisings.

After Faisal's death (1865), tribal strife was supplemented by dynastic strife. Between the heirs of Faisal, who divided Nejd between three sons, a fierce internecine struggle broke out for the "senior table". In April 1871, Abdullah III ibn Faisal (1865-1871), who ruled in Riyadh, was defeated by his half-brother Saud II (1871-1875). In the next five years, the throne passed from hand to hand at least 7 times. Each side created its own groupings, as a result of which the unity of the Wahhabi community was violated; tribal associations were no longer subordinate to the central authority. Taking advantage of the favorable situation, the Ottomans occupied Al-Hasa in 1871, and a year later - Asir. After the death of Saud (1875) and a short period of chaos, Abdullah III (1875-1889) returned to Riyadh. He had to fight not only with his brother Abdarahman, but also with the sons of Saud II.

Against the background of this struggle, the Saudis were overshadowed by the rival Rashidid dynasty, who ruled the emirate of Jabel Shammar since 1835. For a long time, the Rashidids were considered vassals of the Saudis, but gradually, having taken control of the trade caravan routes, they gained power and independence. Pursuing a policy of religious tolerance, the Shammar emir Muhammad ibn Rashid (1869–1897), nicknamed the Great, managed to put an end to dynastic strife in the North of Arabia and unite Jabel-Shammar and Kasim under his rule. In 1876, he recognized himself as a vassal of the Turks and with their help began a struggle against the emirs from the house of the Saudis. In 1887 Abdullah III, once again overthrown by his nephew Muhammad II, turned to Ibn Rashid for help. In the same year, the troops of the Rashidids took Riyadh, placing their own governor in the city. Finding themselves in fact as hostages in Hayil, representatives of the Saudid dynasty recognized themselves as vassals of Ibn Rashid and pledged to regularly pay tribute to him. In 1889, Abdullah, appointed governor of the city, and his brother Abdarahman were allowed to return to Riyadh. Abdallah, however, died in the same year; he was succeeded by Abdarahman, who soon tried to restore the independence of Najd. In the battle of El-Mulaid (1891), the Wahhabis and their allies were defeated. Abdarahman and his family fled to Al-Hasa, and then to Kuwait, where he took refuge with the local ruler. Rashidi governors and representatives were appointed to the occupied areas of Riyadh and Kasim. With the fall of Riyadh, Jabel Shammar became the only major state on the Arabian Peninsula. The possessions of the Rashidi emirs extended from the borders of Damascus and Basra in the north to Asir and Oman in the south.

Ibn Saud and the formation of Saudi Arabia.

The power of the Saudi dynasty was restored by Emir Abd al-Aziz ibn Saud (full name Abd al-Aziz ibn Abdarahman ibn Faisal ibn Abdallah ibn Muhamed al-Saud, who later became known under the name Ibn Saud), who returned in 1901 against the exile dynasty of Rashidids. In January 1902, Ibn Saud, with the support of the ruler of Kuwait, Mubarak, with a small detachment of his supporters took possession of Riyadh, the former capital of the Saudis. This victory allowed him to gain a foothold in Najd and receive support from both religious leaders (who proclaimed him the new emir and imam) and local tribes. By the spring of 1904, Ibn Saud had regained control of most of the southern and central Najd. To fight the Wahhabis, the Rashidids turned to the Ottoman Empire for help in 1904. Ottoman troops sent to Arabia forced Ibn Saud to go on the defensive for a short time, but were soon defeated and left the country. In 1905, the military successes of the Wahhabis forced the governor (wali) of the Ottoman Empire in Iraq to recognize Ibn Saud as his vassal in Najd. Ibn Saud's possessions nominally became the district of the Ottoman governorate of Basra. Left alone, the Rashidids continued their struggle for some time. But in April 1906 their emir Abdel Aziz ibn Mitab al-Rashid (1897-1906) died in battle. His successor Mitab hastened to make peace and recognized the rights of the Saudis to Nejd and Kasim. The Turkish Sultan Abdul-Hamid confirmed this agreement through an exchange of letters. Ottoman troops were withdrawn from Kasim, and Ibn Saud became the sole ruler of central Arabia.

Like his ancestors, Ibn Saud strove to unite Arabia into a unitary theocratic state. This goal was facilitated not only by his military and diplomatic successes, but also by dynastic marriages, the appointment of relatives to responsible posts and the involvement of the ulema in solving state problems. The Bedouin tribes, which retained the tribal organization and did not recognize the state structure, remained unstable elements that hinder the unity of Arabia. In an effort to gain the loyalty of the largest tribes, Ibn Saud, on the advice of the Wahhabi religious teachers, began to transfer them to settled life. For this purpose, a military-religious brotherhood was founded in 1912. Ikhvanov (Arab."Brothers"). All Bedouin tribes and oases that refused to join the Ikhwan movement and recognize Ibn Saud as their emir and imam, began to be viewed as enemies of Najd. The Ikhwan were instructed to move to agricultural colonies ("hijras"), whose members were called to love their homeland, obey the imam-emir unquestioningly and not enter into any contacts with Europeans and residents of the countries they governed (including Muslims). In each Ikhwan community, a mosque was erected, which also served as a military garrison, and the Ikhwan themselves became not only farmers, but also soldiers of the Saudis state. By 1915, more than 200 such settlements were organized throughout the country, including at least 60 thousand people, ready at the first call of Ibn Saud to enter the war with the "infidels."

With the help of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud established complete control over Najd (1912), annexed Al-Hasa and the territories bordering Abu Dhabi and Muscat (1913). This allowed him to conclude a new agreement with the Ottoman Empire in May 1914. In accordance with it, Ibn Saud became the governor (wali) of the newly formed province (vilayet) of Najd. Even earlier, Great Britain recognized Al-Hasa as the possession of Emir Najd. Negotiations began between the two countries, which led to the signing of an agreement on December 26, 1915 in Darin. About friendship and union with the government of British India. Ibn Saud was recognized as the Emir of Najd, Qasim and El-Hasa, independent of the Ottoman Empire, but pledged not to oppose England and coordinate his foreign policy with her, not to attack British possessions in the Arabian Peninsula, not to alienate his territory to third powers and not to enter agreements with countries other than Great Britain, and again to start a war against the Rashidids, who were allies of the Ottoman Empire. For this concession, the Saudis received substantial military and financial assistance (in the amount of £ 60 per year). Despite the agreement, the Emirate of Nedjdi never took part in the First World War, limiting itself to spreading its influence in Arabia.

At the same time, as a result of the secret correspondence of the British High Commissioner in Egypt MacMahon with the Grand Sheriff of Mecca Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi on October 24, 1915, an agreement was reached, according to which Hussein pledged to rouse the Arabs to revolt against the Ottoman Empire. In return, Great Britain recognized the independence of the future Arab state of the Hashemites within its "natural borders" (part of Syria, Palestine, Iraq and the entire Arabian Peninsula, with the exception of the British protectorates and territories of Western Syria, Lebanon and Cilicia, which France claimed). In accordance with the agreement in June 1916, detachments of the Hejaz tribes led by Hussein's son Faisal and British Colonel T.E. Lawrence revolted. Taking the title of king, Hussein declared the independence of the Hejaz from the Ottoman Empire. Using diplomatic recognition, he proclaimed the independence of all Arabs from the Ottoman Empire on October 19, 1916, and ten days later took the title of "King of all Arabs." However, Great Britain and France, who secretly violated their obligations in the spring of 1916 (Sykes-Picot agreement), recognized him only as King of the Hejaz. By July 1917, the Arabs had cleared the Hejaz of the Turks and occupied the port of Aqaba. At the final stage of the war, troops under the command of Faisal and T.E. Lawrence took Damascus (September 30, 1918). As a result of the Mudros truce concluded on October 30, 1918, the rule of the Ottoman Empire in the Arab countries was eliminated. The process of separating the Hejaz (and other Arab possessions) from Turkey was finally completed in 1921 at a conference in Cairo.

After the end of the First World War, the activity of the Ikhwan movement on the borders of Najd led to clashes between the Saudis and most of the neighboring states. In 1919, in a battle near Turab, located on the border between Hejaz and Najd, the Ikhwans completely destroyed the royal army of Hussein ibn Ali. The losses were so great that the Sheriff of Mecca had no strength left to defend the Hejaz. In August 1920, Saudi troops, led by Prince Faisal ibn Abdel Aziz al-Saud, occupied Upper Athir; the emirate was declared a protectorate of Najd (finally annexed in 1923). In the same year, Khail, the capital of Jabel Shammar, fell under the blows of the Ikhwan. With the defeat in the following year of the forces of Muhammad ibn Talal, the last Rashidi emir, Jabel Shammar was annexed to the dominions of the Saudis. On August 22, 1921, Ibn Saud was proclaimed sultan of Najd and the dependent territories. Over the next two years, Ibn Saud annexed Al-Jawf and Wadi al-Sirhan, extending his rule to all of northern Arabia.

Emboldened by their successes, the Ikhwans continued their advance northward, invading the border regions of Iraq, Kuwait and Transjordan. Not wanting to strengthen the Saudis, Great Britain supported the sons of Hussein - King Faisal of Iraq and the Emir of Transjordan, Abdullah. The Wahhabis were defeated by signing on May 5, 1922 in Ukaira the so-called. The “Muhammar Agreement” on the demarcation of borders with Iraq and Kuwait; neutral zones were created in the disputed areas. A conference convened by the British government the following year on the settlement of disputed territorial issues with the participation of the rulers of Iraq, Transjordan, Najd and Hejaz ended in vain. With the conquest of small principalities in the north and south, Saudi holdings doubled.

King Hussein's acceptance of the title of caliph of all Muslims led in 1924 to a new conflict between Najd and Hijaz. Accusing Hussein of deviating from Islamic tradition, Ibn Saud in June 1924 appealed to Muslims not to recognize him as Caliph and convened a conference of the ulama, at which a decision was made to war against the Hejaz. In August of the same year, the Ikhwans invaded the Hejaz and in October they captured Mecca. Hussein was forced to abdicate in favor of his son Ali and flee to Cyprus. The Wahhabis' offensive was continued the following year. The territorial concessions of Transjordan, as well as the aggravation of relations between King Hussein and England on the question of Palestinian ownership, made it possible for Ibn Saud to achieve victory over the Hijaz with relative ease. In December 1925, Saudi troops took Jeddah and Medina, after which Ali also abdicated the throne. This event marked the fall of the Hashemite dynasty in Arabia.

As a result of the war, the Hijaz was annexed to Najd. On January 8, 1926, in the Great Mosque of Mecca, Ibn Saud was proclaimed King of the Hejaz and Sultan of Najd (the Saudi state received the name "Kingdom of Hejaz, Sultanate of Nejd and the annexed regions"). On February 16, 1926, the Soviet Union was the first to recognize the new state and established diplomatic and trade relations with it. The Hejaz, which was granted a constitution (1926), received autonomy within a unified state; his viceroy (viceroy) was appointed the son of Ibn Saud, at which a Consultative Assembly was created, appointed by him on the proposal of the "eminent citizens" of Mecca. The meeting considered bills and other issues that the governor put before him, but all his decisions were of a recommendatory nature.

In October 1926, the Saudis established their protectorate over Lower Asir (the conquest of Asir was finally completed in November 1930). On January 29, 1927, Ibn Saud was proclaimed king of the Hejaz, Najd and the annexed regions (the state received the name "Kingdom of the Hejaz and Najd and the annexed regions"). In May 1927 London was forced to recognize the independence of the Hejaz - Najd; Ibn Saud, for his part, recognized the "special relations" of the sheikhs of Kuwait, Bahrain, Qatar and Treaty Oman with Great Britain (H. Clayton's treaty).

With the conquest of the Hejaz and the introduction of a new tax on pilgrims, the Hajj became the main source of revenue for the treasury (in the rest of the kingdom, except for the Hejaz, taxes were collected "in kind"). In order to promote the development of the Hajj, Ibn Saud took measures to normalize relations with the Western powers and their allies in the Arab countries. However, on this path, Ibn Saud faced internal opposition in the person of the Ikhwans. The modernization of the country according to the Western model (the spread of such "innovations" as telephones, cars, telegraph, the sending of Saud's son Faisal to the "land of unbelievers" - Egypt), they regarded as a betrayal of the basic principles of Islam. The crisis in camel farming caused by the import of cars has further increased the discontent among the Bedouins.

By 1926, the Ikhwans had become out of control. Their raids on Iraq and Transjordan, billed as part of the fight against the "infidels," have become a major diplomatic problem for Najd and Hejaz. In response to renewed Ikhwan raids on the border regions of Iraq, Iraqi troops occupied the neutral zone, which led to a new war between the Hashemite and Saudi dynasties (1927). Only after the bombing strikes by British aircraft on the troops of Ibn Saud were the hostilities between the two states stopped. Iraq withdrew its troops from the neutral zone (1928). February 22, 1930 Ibn Saud made peace with the King of Iraq Faisal (son of the former Emir Hejaz Hussein), ending the Saudi-Hashemite dynastic feud in the Arabian Peninsula (1919-1930).

In 1928, the leaders of the Ikhwan, accusing Ibn Saud of treason against the cause for which they were fighting, openly challenged the power of the monarch. However, the majority of the population rallied around the king, which enabled him to quickly suppress the rebellion. In October 1928, a peace agreement was concluded between the king and the rebel leaders. But the massacre of the Najd merchants forced Ibn Saud to undertake a new military operation against the Ikhwan (1929). Ibn Saud's actions were approved by the Council of Ulema, who believed that only the king had the right to declare "holy war" (jihad) and rule the state. After receiving religious blessings from the ulema, Ibn Saud formed a small army from among his loyal tribes and urban population and inflicted a series of defeats on the Bedouin rebel groups. The civil war, however, continued until 1930, when the rebels were surrounded by the British in Kuwaiti territory and their leaders were handed over to Ibn Saud. With the defeat of the Ikhwans, tribal associations lost their role as the main military support of Ibn Saud. During the civil war, the rebellious sheikhs and their squads were completely destroyed. This victory was the final stage on the way to the creation of a single centralized state.

Saudi Arabia 1932-1953.

On September 22, 1932, Ibn Saud changed the name of his state to a new one - the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. This was intended not only to strengthen the unity of the kingdom and end Hijaz separatism, but also to emphasize the central role of the royal house in the creation of the Arabian centralized state. During the entire subsequent period of Ibn Saud's rule, internal problems did not present any particular difficulties for him. At the same time, the external relations of the kingdom developed ambiguously. The policy of religious intolerance led to the alienation of Saudi Arabia from most Muslim governments, which considered the Saudi regime to be hostile and resented the complete control established by the Wahhabis over the holy cities and the Hajj.

In many places, especially in the south of the country, border problems persisted. In 1932, with the support of Yemen, Emir Asir Hasan Idrisi, who in 1930 renounced his own sovereignty in favor of Ibn Saud, raised an uprising against Saudi Arabia. His performance was quickly suppressed. In early 1934, an armed clash broke out between Yemen and Saudi Arabia over the disputed region of Najran. In just a month and a half, Yemen was defeated and almost completely occupied by Saudi forces. The final annexation of Yemen was prevented only by the intervention of Great Britain and Italy, who saw this as a threat to their colonial interests. The hostilities ceased after the signing of the Taif Treaty (June 23, 1934), according to which Saudi Arabia achieved recognition by the Yemeni government of the incorporation of Asir, Jizan and part of Najran into its structure. The final demarcation of the border with Yemen was carried out in 1936.

Border problems also occurred in the eastern part of the Arabian Peninsula after Ibn Saud granted an oil concession to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL) in 1933. Negotiations with Great Britain on the demarcation of borders with neighboring British protectorates and possessions - Qatar, Treaty Oman, Muscat and Oman and the Eastern Protectorate of Aden ended in failure.

Despite the mutual animosity that existed between the Saudis and Hashemite dynasties, a treaty was signed with Transjordan in 1933, ending years of intense feud between the Saudis and the Hashemites. In 1936, Saudi Arabia took steps to normalize relations with a number of neighboring states. A non-aggression pact was signed with Iraq. In the same year, diplomatic relations with Egypt were restored, which were severed in 1926.

In May 1933, due to a decrease in the number of pilgrims in Mecca and tax revenues from the Hajj, Ibn Saud was forced to grant a concession for oil exploration in Saudi Arabia to Standard Oil of California (SOCAL). In March 1938, the California Arabien Standard Oil Company (KASOK, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil of California) discovered oil at El Has. Under these conditions, KASOK achieved in May 1939 a concession for exploration and production of oil in a large part of the country (commercial production began in 1938).

The outbreak of World War II prevented the full-scale development of the Al-Hasa oil fields, but part of Ibn Saud's loss of income was reimbursed through British and then American aid. During the war, Saudi Arabia broke off diplomatic relations with fascist Germany (1941) and Italy (1942), but remained neutral almost until its end (officially declared war on Germany and Japan on February 28, 1945). At the end of the war and especially after it, American influence in Saudi Arabia increased. In 1943, the United States established diplomatic relations with Saudi Arabia and extended the Lend-Lease Act to it. In early February 1944, American oil companies began construction of the Trans-Arabian oil pipeline from Dhahran to the Lebanese port of Sayda. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia allowed the construction of a large American air force base in Dhahran, which the United States needed for the war against Japan. In February 1945, US President Franklin Roosevelt and King Ibn Saud of Saudi Arabia signed an agreement on the US monopoly on the development of Saudi deposits.

Oil production, which increased substantially at the end of the war, contributed to the formation of the working class. In 1945 the first strike took place at the enterprises of the Arabien-American Oil Company (ARAMCO, until 1944 - KASOK). The board of the company was forced to meet the basic requirements of the workers (increase in wages, reduction in working hours and the provision of annual paid leave). As a result of new strikes in 1946-1947, the government passed the Labor Law (1947), according to which a 6-day working week with an 8-hour working day was introduced at all enterprises in the country.

The development of the oil industry became the reason for the folding of the administrative management system. In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the ministries of finance, internal affairs, defense, education, agriculture, communications, foreign affairs, and others were created (1953).

In 1951, an agreement "on mutual defense and mutual assistance" was signed between the United States and Saudi Arabia. The United States received the right to further build an air force base in Dhahran (in Al-Khasa), where the headquarters of ARAMCO was located. In the same 1951, a new concession agreement was signed with ARAMCO, according to which the company switched to the principle of "equal distribution of profits", deducting to the kingdom half of all its oil revenues.

Relying on vastly increased resources, Ibn Saud reiterated territorial claims against the British protectorates of Qatar, Abu Dhabi and Muscat. In the disputed territories, ARAMCO's search parties began to conduct prospecting work. After fruitless negotiations with Great Britain, the military forces of Saudi Arabia occupied the Al-Buraimi oasis, which belonged to Abu Dhabi (1952).

Saudi Arabia under Saudi Arabia.

The full-scale changes caused by the huge revenues from oil exports were already evident during the rule of Ibn Saud's successor, his second son Saud ibn Abdel Aziz, who ascended the throne in November 1953. In October 1953, the Council of Ministers was established headed by Saud. In the same month, the government suppressed a major strike involving 20,000 ARAMCO oil workers. The new king passed laws prohibiting strikes and demonstrations and providing for the most severe punishments (up to the death penalty) for speaking out against the royal regime.

In 1954, an agreement was reached between Saud and Onassis to create an independent oil transportation company, but ARAMCO, with the help of the US State Department, thwarted the deal.

Relations with neighboring states during this period remained uneven. In the late 1940s - early 1950s, Saudi Arabia's relations with a number of neighboring states improved somewhat, which was a consequence of the formation of the state of Israel and the hostile attitude towards it from the Arab countries. In foreign policy, Saud followed the precepts of his father and, together with Egyptian President Nasser, supported the slogan of Arab unity. Saudi Arabia opposed the creation of the "Middle East Cooperation Organization" (METO), formed by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan and Great Britain (1955). On October 27, 1955, Saudi Arabia entered into a defensive alliance with Egypt and Syria. In the same month, British forces from Abu Dhabi and Muscat regained control of the Buraimi oasis, which was seized by the Saudi Arabian police in 1952. Saudi Arabia's attempt to find support in the UN failed. In 1956, an additional agreement was signed in Jeddah with Egypt and Yemen on a military alliance for 5 years. During the Suez Crisis (1956), Saudi Arabia sided with Egypt with a $ 10 million loan and sent its troops to Jordan. On November 6, 1956, Saud announced the severance of diplomatic relations with Great Britain and France and the introduction of an oil embargo.

In 1956, a strike by Arab workers at ARAMCO factories and student riots in Najd were brutally suppressed. Saud issued a royal decree in June 1956 banning strikes under threat of dismissal.

The turn in Saudi foreign policy was outlined in 1957 after Saud's visit to the United States. Taking a sharply negative stance towards pan-Arabism and Nasser's social reform program, Saud reached an agreement in March 1957 with the Hashemite rulers of Jordan and Iraq. Islamists who emigrated from Egypt under pressure from Nasser found refuge in the country. In February 1958, Saudi Arabia opposed the formation of a new state by Egypt and Syria - the United Arab Republic (UAR). A month later, official Damascus accused King Saud of involvement in a conspiracy to overthrow the Syrian government and to prepare an assassination attempt on the Egyptian president. In the same 1958, relations with Iraq were practically severed.

Saudi's huge spending on personal needs, upkeep of the court, and bribery of tribal leaders have significantly undermined the Saudi economy. Despite the annual revenues from oil, the country's debt by 1958 increased to $ 300 million, the Saudi riyal devalued by 80%. Ineffective financial management of the kingdom and inconsistent domestic and foreign policy, systematic interference of Saud in the internal affairs of other Arab countries led in 1958 to a crisis of government. Under pressure from members of the royal family, Saud was forced in March 1958 to transfer all executive and legislative power to the prime minister, who was appointed his younger brother Faisal. In May 1958, a reform of the state apparatus began. A permanent Council of Ministers was formed, the composition of which was appointed by the head of government. The cabinet was responsible to the prime minister, the king retained only the right to sign decrees and veto. In parallel, the financial control of the government over all the revenues of the kingdom was established, and the expenses of the royal court were significantly cut. As a result of the measures taken, the government managed to balance the budget, stabilize the exchange rate of the national currency and reduce the state's internal debt. However, the struggle within the ruling house continued.

Relying on a tribal aristocracy and a group of liberal-minded members of the royal family led by Prince Talal ibn Abdel Aziz, Saud regained direct control of the government in December 1960 and again took over as prime minister. Along with the sons of Saud, Talal and his supporters were included in the new cabinet, who advocated for political reforms, general parliamentary elections and the establishment of a constitutional monarchy.

During this period, political associations arise that advocate the democratization of public life, the creation of a responsible government, the development of national industry and the use of the country's wealth in the interests of the entire population: "Freedom Movement in Saudi Arabia", "Liberal Party", "Reform Party", "Front of National reforms ". However, the government failed to take any real steps towards reforming the regime. In protest against the continuation of the conservative traditionalist policy, Prince Talal resigned and in May 1962, together with a group of his supporters, fled to Lebanon and then to Egypt. In the same year in Cairo he formed the Saudi Arabia National Liberation Front, which advocated radical socialist reforms in the country and the establishment of a republic. The flight of Talal, as well as the overthrow of the monarchy in neighboring Yemen and the proclamation of the Yemen Arab Republic (YAR) in September 1962, led to the severance of diplomatic relations between Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Republic (UAR).

Over the next five years, Saudi Arabia was effectively at war in Egypt and the YAR, providing direct military assistance to the ousted imam of Yemen. The war in Yemen reached its climax in 1963, when Saudi Arabia, in connection with the threat of an attack from Egypt, announced the beginning of a general mobilization. The deterioration of relations between Saudi Arabia and Syria dates back to the same period, after the Arab Socialist Renaissance Party (Baath) came to power in this country in March 1963.

Saudi Arabia under Faisal.

In October 1962, due to the worsening economic situation in the country, Prince Faisal again headed the Cabinet of Ministers. He carried out a series of reforms in the economy, social sphere and education, which the liberals insisted on. The government abolished slavery and the slave trade (1962), nationalized the port of Jeddah, passed laws protecting the position of Saudi industrialists from foreign competition, provided them with loans, and exempted them from taxes and duties on the import of industrial equipment. In 1962, the state company PETROMIN (General Directorate of Oil and Mining Resources) was created to control the activities of foreign companies, the production, transportation and sale of all minerals, as well as the development of the oil refining industry. Other large-scale reforms were envisaged in the field of public administration: the adoption of a constitution, the creation of local authorities and the formation of an independent judiciary headed by the Supreme Judicial Council, which includes representatives of secular and religious circles. Attempts by the opposition to influence the situation in the country were harshly suppressed. In 1963-1964, anti-government protests were suppressed in Khail and Najd. In 1964, conspiracies in the Saudi army were exposed, causing new repression against "unreliable elements." Faisal's projects and the funds needed to modernize the armed forces waging the war in North Yemen meant that the king's personal spending had to be cut. On March 28, 1964, by decree of the royal council and the council of ulema, the king's powers and his personal budget were cut (Crown Prince Faisal was declared regent, and Saud was the nominal ruler). Saud, who saw this as an act of arbitrariness, tried to gain the support of influential circles in order to return power, but failed. On November 2, 1964, Saud was ousted by members of the royal family, whose decision was confirmed by a fatwa (religious decree) of the Ulema Council. On November 4, 1964, Saud signed an abdication and in January 1965 went into exile in Europe. This decision put an end to a decade of internal and external instability and further consolidated conservative forces at home. Faisal ibn al-Aziz al-Faisal al-Saud was proclaimed the new king, retaining the post of prime minister. In March 1965, he appointed his half-brother, Prince Khalid ibn Abdel Aziz al-Saud, as the new heir.

Faisal declared his first priority to modernize the kingdom. His first decrees were aimed at protecting the state and the nation from potential internal and external threats that could hinder the development of the kingdom. Cautiously, but decisively, Faisal followed the path of introducing Western technologies in industry and the social sphere. Under him, the reform of the education and health care system developed, and a national television appeared. After the death of the great mufti in 1969, a reform of religious institutions was carried out, a system of religious bodies controlled by the king was created (the Council of the Assembly of Leading Ulema, the Supreme Council of Qadi, the Administration of Scientific (Religious) Research, Decision Making (fatwas), propaganda and leadership, etc.).

In foreign policy, Faisal has made great progress in resolving border disputes. In August 1965, a final agreement was reached on the demarcation of the borders between Saudi Arabia and Jordan. In the same year, Saudi Arabia agreed on the future contours of the border with Qatar. In December 1965, an agreement was signed on the delimitation of the continental shelf between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain on joint rights to the Abu Saafa offshore field. In October 1968, a similar agreement was signed on the continental shelf with Iran.

In 1965, Saudi Arabia and Egypt organized a meeting of representatives of the Yemeni warring parties, at which an agreement was reached between Egyptian President Nasser and King Faisal of Saudi Arabia to end foreign military interference in YAR affairs. However, hostilities soon resumed with renewed vigor. Egypt accused Saudi Arabia of continuing to provide military assistance to supporters of the ousted imam of Yemen, and announced a suspension of the withdrawal of its troops from the country. Egyptian aircraft attacked the bases of the Yemeni monarchists in the south of Saudi Arabia. Faisal's government responded by closing several Egyptian banks, after which Egypt proceeded to confiscate all Saudi Arabian property in Egypt. In Saudi Arabia itself, a number of terrorist attacks have been carried out against the royal family and citizens of the United States and Great Britain. 17 Yemenis were publicly executed on charges of sabotage. The number of political prisoners in the country in 1967 reached 30 thousand people.

The sympathy that Faisal might have had for King Hussein of Jordan as his fellow monarch, as well as an opponent of all revolutions, Marxism, and republican sentiments, was clouded by the traditional rivalry between the Saudis and the Hashemites. Nevertheless, in August 1965, a 40-year-old dispute between Saudi Arabia and Jordan over the border was resolved: Saudi Arabia recognized Jordan's claims to the port city of Aqaba.

Egyptian and Saudi differences were not resolved until the Khartoum Conference of Arab Heads of State in August 1967. This was preceded by the third Arab-Israeli war ("Six Day War", 1967), during which the Saudi government declared its support for Egypt and sent its own military units (20 thousand soldiers, who, however, did not take part in the hostilities). Along with this, the Faisal government resorted to economic leverage: an embargo was announced on oil exports to the United States and Great Britain. However, the embargo did not last long. At the Khartoum Conference, the heads of government of Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Libya decided to annually allocate 135 million pounds to the "states-victims of aggression" (UAR, Jordan). Art. to restore their economy. At the same time, the oil export embargo was lifted. In exchange for economic assistance, Egypt agreed to withdraw its troops from North Yemen. The civil war in the YAR lasted until 1970, when Saudi Arabia recognized the republican government, withdrew all its troops from the country and stopped military assistance to the monarchists.

With the end of the civil war in the YAR, Saudi Arabia faced a new external threat - the revolutionary regime in the People's Republic of South Yemen (PRS). King Faisal supported the southern Yemeni opposition groups that fled after 1967 to the YAR and Saudi Arabia. In late 1969, armed clashes broke out between Prsy and Saudi Arabia over the Al-Wadeyah oasis. The crisis was aggravated by the alleged oil and water reserves in the region.

In the same year, the authorities prevented an attempted coup d'état prepared by Air Force officers; about 300 people were arrested and sentenced to various terms of imprisonment. High wages and privileges dampened discontent in the officer corps.

In 1970, Shiite riots broke out again in Katif, which were so severe that the city was blockaded for a month.

The Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation, concluded between the USSR and Iraq in 1972, increased Faisal's fears and pushed him to attempts to unite neighboring countries into a coalition to fight the "communist threat."

New disputes with neighbors caused the formation of the United Arab Emirates (UAE) in 1971. Making the decision of the Buraimi issue a condition of its recognition, Saudi Arabia refused to recognize the new state. Only in August 1974, after lengthy negotiations, it was possible to remove most of the issues on the Al-Buraimi oasis. As a result of the agreement, Saudi Arabia recognized the rights of Abu Dhabi and Oman to the oasis, and in turn received the territory of Sabha Bita in the southern part of Abu Dhabi, two small islands and the right to build a road and an oil pipeline through Abu Dhabi to the coast of the Gulf.

During the 1973 Arab-Israeli War, Saudi Arabia sent small military units to participate in hostilities on the Syrian and Egyptian fronts. At the end of the war, the country provided Egypt and Syria with gratuitous financial assistance, reduced oil production and supplies to countries that supported Israel in October-December, imposed (temporarily) an embargo on oil exports to the United States and the Netherlands, in order to force them to change their policy in the Arab world. the Israeli conflict. The oil embargo and the 4-fold increase in oil prices contributed to the strengthening of the economy of the Arab oil-producing states. With the signing in 1974 of ceasefire agreements between Israel, Egypt and Syria (both mediated by US Secretary of State Henry Kissinger) and the visit to Saudi Arabia (June 1974) by US President Richard M. Nixon, Saudi Arabia's relations with the United States were normalized. The country has made efforts to reduce the growth of world oil prices.

Saudi Arabia under Khaled (1975-1982).

On March 25, 1975, King Faisal was assassinated by one of his nephews, Prince Faisal ibn Musaid, who returned to the country after studying at an American university. The killer was arrested, declared insane, and sentenced to death by beheading. The king's brother, Khaled ibn Abdel Aziz al-Saud (1913-1982), ascended the throne. Due to Khalid's poor health, virtually all executive power was transferred to Crown Prince Fahd ibn Abdel Aziz al-Saud. The new government continued Faisal's conservative policies by increasing spending on transport, industry and education. Thanks to its huge oil revenues and its military-strategic position, the kingdom's role in regional politics and international economic and financial issues has increased. The 1977 treaty between King Khaled and US President Ford further strengthened US-Saudi relations. At the same time, the Saudi government condemned the peace agreements between Israel and Egypt, concluded in 1978-1979, and broke off diplomatic relations with Egypt (restored in 1987).

Saudi Arabia fell under the influence of the rising tide of Islamic fundamentalism that followed the Islamic revolution in Iran in 1978-1979. In 1978, major anti-government demonstrations took place in Katif again, accompanied by arrests and executions. Tensions in Saudi society came to light in November 1979, when armed Muslim opposition leaders led by Juhayman al-Oteibi seized the al-Haram mosque in Mecca, one of the Muslim shrines. The rebels were supported by part of the local population, as well as by hired workers and students of some religious educational institutions. The rebels accused the ruling regime of corruption, deviation from the original principles of Islam and the spread of the Western way of life. The mosque was liberated by Saudi forces after two weeks of fighting that killed more than 300 people. The seizure of the Great Mosque and the victory of the Islamic revolution in Iran provoked new protests by Shiite dissidents, also suppressed by the troops and the National Guard. In response to these speeches, Crown Prince Fahd announced in the early 1980s plans to create an Advisory Council, which, however, was only formed in 1993, and to modernize governance in the Eastern Province.

To provide external protection for its allies, the United States agreed in 1981 to sell several AWACS on-board tracking systems to Saudi Arabia, prompting a backlash in Israel, fearing an upset of the military balance in the Middle East. In the same year, Saudi Arabia took part in the creation of the Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Persian Gulf (GCC), a group of six Arabian Gulf states.

On the other hand, in an effort to counter internal threats from religious extremists, the Saudi Arabian government began to actively assist Islamist movements in various regions of the world, primarily in Afghanistan. This policy coincided with a sharp rise in oil export revenues - from 1973 to 1978, Saudi Arabia's annual profits rose from $ 4.3 billion to $ 34.5 billion.

Modern Saudi Arabia.

In June 1982, King Khaled died and Fahd became king and prime minister. Another brother, Prince Abdullah, commander of the Saudi National Guard, was named Crown Prince and First Deputy Prime Minister. King Fahd's brother, Prince Sultan bin Abdel Aziz Al-Saud (b. 1928), minister of defense and aviation, became second deputy prime minister. Under King Fahd, the Saudi economy faced serious problems. The decline in world oil demand and prices that began in 1981 led to a decline in Saudi oil production from 9 million barrels per day in 1980 to 2.3 million barrels in 1985; revenues from oil exports fell from $ 101 billion to $ 22 billion. The balance of payments deficit in 1985 amounted to $ 20 billion, and foreign exchange reserves also decreased. All this led to the aggravation of many internal political, social and religious contradictions, fueled by the tense foreign policy situation in the region.

Throughout the Iran-Iraq war, during which Saudi Arabia economically and politically supported the Iraqi government, Ayatollah Khomeini's followers repeatedly organized riots in an attempt to disrupt the annual Hajj to Mecca. Saudi Arabia's tight security measures have usually prevented major incidents. In response to the unrest of Iranian pilgrims that took place in Mecca in March 1987, the government of the country decided to reduce their number to 45 thousand people a year. This caused an extremely negative reaction from the Iranian leadership. In July 1987, about 25,000 Iranian pilgrims tried to block the entrance to the Haram Mosque (Beit Ullah), engaging in a battle with the security forces. More than 400 people were killed in the riots. Khomeini called for the overthrow of the Saudi royal house to avenge the deaths of the pilgrims. The Saudi government has accused Iran of organizing riots in support of its claim for the extraterritoriality of Mecca and Medina. This incident, along with Iranian air raids on Saudi oil tankers in the Persian Gulf in 1984, forced Saudi Arabia to sever diplomatic relations with Iran. Many terrorist attacks have been carried out against Saudi agencies abroad, most notably the offices of the national airline Saudi. Responsibility for the killings of the Saudi diplomats was claimed by the Shiite groups "Party of God in the Hejaz", "Faithful Soldiers" and "Generation of Arab Wrath". Several Saudi Shiites were convicted and executed for bombing Saudi oil facilities in 1988. In 1989, Saudi Arabia accused Iran of being involved in two terrorist attacks during the 1989 Hajj. In 1990, 16 Kuwaiti Shiites were executed for the attacks. During 1988-1991, the Iranians did not participate in the Hajj. The normalization of relations with Iran took place after the death of Khomeini in 1989. In 1991, the Saudis approved a quota of 115 thousand Iranian pilgrims and allowed political demonstrations in Mecca. During the Hajj in 1990, more than 1,400 pilgrims were trampled to death or suffocated in an underground tunnel that connects Mecca with one of the sanctuaries. The incident, however, was not related to Iran.

The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had significant military, political and economic consequences for Saudi Arabia. After completing the occupation of Kuwait, Iraqi troops began to concentrate on the border with Saudi Arabia. To counter the Iraqi military threat, Saudi Arabia has mobilized and turned to the United States for military assistance. Fahd's government allowed the temporary deployment of thousands of American and allied military forces to Saudi territory. At the same time, the country received approx. 400 thousand refugees from Kuwait. During this period, to compensate for the loss of oil supplies from Iraq and Kuwait, Saudi Arabia multiplied its own oil production. King Fahd personally played a huge role during the Gulf War, convincing many Arab states to join the anti-Iraqi coalition with his influence. During the Gulf War (1991), the territory of Saudi Arabia was repeatedly shelled from Iraq. At the end of January 1991, Iraqi forces captured the Saudi cities of Wafra and Khafji. The battles for these cities were called the largest battle in the history of the country against enemy forces. Saudi forces have participated in other military operations, including the liberation of Kuwait.

After the Gulf War, the government of Saudi Arabia came under powerful pressure from Islamic radicals, who demanded political reforms, strict adherence to the provisions of Sharia law, and the withdrawal of Western countries, especially American troops, from the sacred land of Arabia. Petitions were sent to King Fahd calling for greater government power, greater public participation in political life, and greater economic justice. These actions were followed by the creation in May 1993 of the "Committee for the Protection of Legal Rights". However, the government soon banned the organization, dozens of its members were arrested, and King Fahd demanded that the Islamists stop anti-government agitation.

Pressure from liberals and conservatives forced King Fahd to embark on political reforms. On February 29, 1992, at an official meeting of the government, three royal decrees were adopted ("Fundamentals of the system of government", "Regulation on the Consultative Council" and "System of territorial organization"), which enshrined the general principles of state structure and government. In addition, in September 1993, the King adopted the "Act of the Establishment of the Consultative Council", according to which the members of the Consultative Council were appointed and its powers were explained. In December 1993, the first meeting of the Advisory Board was held. In the same year, the reform of the Council of Ministers and the administrative reform were announced. By royal decree, the country was divided into 13 provinces, headed by emirs appointed by the king. In the same 1993, the members of 13 provincial councils and the principles of their activities were announced. In 1994, the provinces, in turn, were divided into 103 counties.

In October 1994, as a counterbalance to the Council of Ulema, an advisory body of highly conservative theologians, the Supreme Council for Islamic Affairs was formed, composed of members of the royal family and members appointed by the king (headed by the Minister of Defense Sultan), as well as the Council for Islamic Inquiries and Leadership (headed by the Minister of Islamic Affairs Abdullah al-Turki).

The war with Iraq seriously affected the country's economy. Economic problems became apparent in 1993 when the US insisted that Saudi Arabia pay US spending during the Gulf War. According to experts, this war cost the country $ 70 billion. Low oil prices did not allow Saudi Arabia to compensate for its financial losses. Fiscal deficits and declining oil prices in the 1980s forced the Saudi government to cut social spending and cut the kingdom's overseas investment. Despite its own economic difficulties, Saudi Arabia thwarted Iranian plans to artificially raise oil prices in March 1994.

War on Terrorism.

However, attempts at structural reforms have failed to resolve the contradictions that have matured in Saudi society. Coalition troops were withdrawn from Saudi Arabia in late 1991; about 6 thousand American troops remained in the country. Their presence on Saudi soil was in blatant contradiction with the tenets of Wahhabism. In November 1995, the first terrorist attack against American citizens took place in Riyadh - a bomb exploded in a car parked outside the Saudi Arabian National Guard's Program Office; 7 people were killed and 42 injured. In June 1996, after the execution of 4 Islamists who organized the explosion, a new attack followed. On June 25, 1996, a mined fuel truck was blown up near the US military base in Dhahran. The explosion killed 19 American servicemen and injured 515 people, incl. 240 US citizens. The Islamic Change Movement in the Arab Peninsula - Wing of Jihad, as well as two previously unknown groups, the Tigers of the Gulf and the Fighting Defenders of Allah, claimed responsibility for the attacks. While the country's government has condemned the attacks, many prominent Saudis and religious groups have declared their opposition to the US military presence in Saudi Arabia. In November 1996, 40 Saudis were accused of complicity in a terrorist act, who had been imprisoned for several months. In December of the same year, the government approved additional security measures for American facilities in the country.

Relations between Saudi Arabia and the United States deteriorated further after the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on New York and Washington. This was due to the fact that most of the participants in the attack (15 out of 19) were citizens of the Saudi kingdom. In September 2001, Saudi Arabia severed diplomatic relations with the Taliban Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. At the same time, the government of Saudi Arabia denied the United States the right to use the American military bases on its territory for carrying out operations against terrorists. In Saudi Arabia itself, a debate unfolded about the role of religious clergy, some of whom spoke out with openly anti-American and anti-Western positions. Voices began to be heard in society in favor of revising some of the concepts of the religious doctrine underlying the Wahhabi movement. In December 2001, King Fahd called for the eradication of terrorism as a phenomenon that does not conform to the norms of Islam. The government froze the accounts of a number of individuals and businesses, including some Saudi charitable foundations. Information provided by Saudi intelligence helped liquidate 50 companies in 25 countries through which the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda was funded.

American pressure on Saudi Arabia increased in August 2002, when about 3,000 relatives of the victims of the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks filed a lawsuit against 186 defendants, incl. foreign banks, Islamic foundations and members of the Saudi royal family. All of them were suspected of involvement in helping Islamic extremists. At the same time, it was asserted that there was a conspiracy between Saudi Arabia and terrorists. All accusations by the American side were denied by the Saudi authorities; in protest against the prosecutions, some Saudi investors have threatened to withdraw their monetary assets from the United States. In November 2002, the US CIA circulated among bankers around the world a list of 12 Saudi entrepreneurs whom Washington suspects of financing the international terrorist network Al-Qaeda. This happened against the backdrop of demands from a number of US congressmen to conduct an in-depth investigation into reports that Saudi Arabia provided funds to 19 terrorists who committed terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001. Meanwhile, the US administration itself did not seem to have a consensus on how much pressure should be exerted on Saudi Arabia. Speaking in Mexico City, US Secretary of State Colin Powell emphasized that the US must be careful not to "sever relations with a country that has been a good partner of the United States for many years and still remains a strategic partner of America."

Saudi Arabia in the 21st century

In Saudi Arabia itself, the voices of reform supporters were growing louder. In 2003, petitions were sent to King Fahd demanding the democratization of political life, freedom of speech, independence of the judiciary, constitutional revision, economic reforms, elections to the Consultative Council, and the creation of civil institutions. Amid deteriorating relations with the United States, the Saudi government has taken unprecedented steps to reform the system. In 2003, local elections were announced, and two human rights organizations were created (one under the patronage of the government, the other independent). Identity cards for women were introduced. In the same year, Riyadh hosted the country's first human rights conference, which addressed the issue of human rights in the context of Islamic law.

The war in Iraq (2003) caused a deep split in the Arab world. Initially, Saudi Arabia's position on US plans to overthrow Saddam Hussein's regime was irreconcilable. In August 2002, the country's authorities announced that they would not allow the use of American facilities located in the kingdom to launch strikes on Iraq, even if these strikes are sanctioned by the UN. Moreover, in October 2002, Saudi Arabia (for the first time since the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait) opened the border with Iraq. In preparation for war, the Saudi Arabian government has made repeated attempts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict. However, in early 2003, Riyadh's position changed dramatically. Already during the war in Iraq, the Saudi Arabian government expressed its support for the United States by allowing coalition forces to use American airstrikes and military bases located in the country. After the end of hostilities, Saudi Arabia participated in the conference on the reconstruction of Iraq (October 2003, Madrid), at which it announced that it would allocate $ 1 billion for the reconstruction of the neighboring state (500 million will be provided by project financing, and another 500 million - by commodity export).

In April 2003, the United States announced that it would withdraw most of its troops from Saudi Arabia, as their presence was no longer necessary with the fall of Saddam Hussein's regime. The presence of a foreign army in an extremely conservative Islamic country was a strong annoyance that played into the hands of Islamic radicalism. One of the main reasons for the September 11, 2001 attack, according to Saudi terrorist Osama bin Laden, was the presence of American troops in the homeland of the holy sites of Islam, Medina and Mecca. The new war in Iraq (2003) contributed to the further activation of radical Islamists. On 12 May 2003, in Riyadh, suicide bombers carried out four attacks on a complex of buildings in which foreigners lived; 34 people were killed and 160 were injured. On the night of November 8-9, 2003, a group of suicide bombers staged a new attack. In the course of it, 18 people were killed and more than 130 injured, mostly foreign workers from the Middle East. It is believed that al-Qaeda was behind all the attacks. The United States and other countries have again questioned Saudi Arabia's willingness to fight terrorism. In July 2003, the US Congress issued a strong statement on Saudi financing of terrorist organizations and harboring government officials involved in the September 11, 2001 attacks. Although the Saudi government arrested a large number of terrorist suspects in 2002, the country, according to international experts, - remains a stronghold of Islamic radicalism.

King Fahd of Saudi Arabia passed away on August 1, 2005. Crown Prince Abdullah, Fahd's brother, who died in January 2015, became king.

Abdullah carried out a number of reforms in the country, in particular, he created the Supreme Court - the guarantor of the Constitution of Saudi Arabia; increased the composition of the Majlis (Advisory Council) from 81 to 150 deputies, where for the first time a woman took the high state post of deputy minister of education for women;
opened the University of Science and Technology with joint education of boys and girls; forbade members of the large royal family to use the state treasury; implemented a government scholarship program to educate young people in Western universities; became the first Saudi monarch to visit the head of the Roman Catholic Church.

He was succeeded by the twenty-fifth son of the first monarch of the country, King Abdel Aziz, Prince Salman bin Abdel Aziz al-Saud.

Kirill Limanov

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General information about the country

Located in the central part of the Arabian Peninsula. In Saudi Arabia, there are two holy cities of Islam - Mecca and Medina, where millions of Muslims from all over the world flock every year to carry out the pilgrimage prescribed by the Koran - the Hajj.

Most of the country is located in the desert and semi-desert zone. The climate is hot and dry. Water and food resources are limited. The population of Saudi Arabia in 2015 was about 29.74 million.

Since antiquity, the country's territory has been the periphery of the then existing states: the empires of Mesopotamia (Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Persian), Seleucid Syria, the Sabaean and Nabataean kingdoms. Caravan roads went through it from modern Yemen to the Mediterranean Sea. The local population, engaged in nomadic cattle breeding and oasis farming, earned money on transit trade (participation in it, collection of tolls for travel and robbery).

After the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the British government tried to establish a state in the Hejaz headed by its ally Hussein. But he was expelled from the country by a group of Bedouin tribes - Islamic sectarian Wahhabis from Najd, led by the Saudi clan. In 1926, they proclaimed a new state - Saudi Arabia. With the help of the USSR, the new regime was able to keep the occupied territories under control.

City of Medina.

In the late 1940s, intensive oil development began, which by 1960 led to an explosive increase in the income of the Saudi ruling clan. The immense wealth allowed the rulers to raise the standard of living of the population and to modernize the economy and the army, without changing anything in the archaic theocratic system of power. The ruling clan numbers several hundred people and enjoys most of the income from oil exports. Saudi Arabia has become the head of the international oil cartel - OPEC.

The oil and other manufacturing industries employ hundreds of thousands of foreign workers who do not have civil rights in the country. The own population receives social benefits from the government. The rulers of Saudi Arabia see themselves as the defenders and strongholds of Islam; the country has religious legislation - sharia... The country's laws to this day are based on extreme forms of Islamic law, restricting the rights of women and any non-believers, including Muslims of other sects, except for the ruling one. Slavery has been officially abolished very recently, but in fact it is practiced at the beginning of the 21st century.

The Saudi Arabian army and security services are equipped with the most modern weapons. Wealth allows the country's authorities to stimulate young people to study in the most advanced educational institutions in the West and to innovate in the field of technology. Saudi investments are present in key sectors of the global economy. The country has carried out economic diversification; branches of industry and agriculture not related to oil are developing. For example, potatoes from Saudi Arabia are exported to Russia and Ukraine.

The political position of Saudi Arabia with a claim to leadership in the Arab and Muslim world and the leadership of the oil market led it to several conflicts. Saudi Arabia's rival for leadership in the Arab world was and remains Egypt, with which a war was fought in Yemen in 1962-1967. In the Islamic world, the position of Saudi Arabia seeks to squeeze out Iran (which claims to expand its possessions in the Persian Gulf). In the eastern regions of the country, where the bulk of Saudi oil is produced, the population - both Saudi and foreign workers - is mostly Shiites, subject to religious oppression and inclined to support Iran.

Despite the formal alliance of the Saudi authorities with the United States, the entire ideological system of the country is aimed at a conflict with the Western world, including the military-terrorist jihad... The Saudi authorities fund and encourage the activities of extreme Islamist groups around the world, including terrorists (such as Hamas). Private and public organizations in the country, which are not formally connected with the government, go even further in the same direction.

The presence in the country of groups trying to overthrow the ruling regime leads to the constant danger of internal conflicts. Almost all of these groups are even more radical Islamists than the country's official religious authorities.

Saudi Arabia's anti-Israel position

Since the establishment of the State of Israel, Saudi Arabia has been among the most implacable opponents of the Jewish state, generously funding anti-Israeli terror, anti-Israel and anti-Semitic propaganda. Jews were prohibited from entering Saudi Arabia; the official guests and diplomats were presented with copies of the "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" (for more details on the attitude of Saudi Arabia towards Israel, see The State of Israel. Israel and the Arab World).

In 1991, Saudi Arabia acted as one of the most active participants in the anti-Iraqi coalition in the Gulf War. This increased the traditional dependence of Saudi Arabia on the United States, which constantly influenced the rulers of this country so that they take a more moderate stance towards Israel. This also met the vital interests of the Saudi regime, which feared destabilization in the Middle East and the actions of radical regimes and movements in the Arab world.

In the 2010s, amid the general crisis in the Middle East (see below), opportunities for cooperation between Saudi Arabia and Israel emerged. Certain circles of the Saudi authorities realized that radical Islamists pose a danger to them, but Israel does not, and that they no longer have the opportunity to attack Israel. Israeli diplomacy is making efforts to forge undisclosed ties with the Saudi leadership.

Events at the beginning of the XXI century

Islamic terrorist organizations associated with the al-Qaeda movement were less and less controlled by the royal government, turning into contenders for the seizure of power. The ruling circles are forced to fight them, as well as the Shiite terrorists supported by Iran. At the same time, the administration of US President Barack Obama has taken a course towards abandoning the alliance with Saudi Arabia and attempting to reorient towards Iran.

Saudi Arabia is trying to thwart the growth of shale oil production in the United States and other countries around the world. To this end, it is increasing the export of its own oil, causing a drop in prices on the world market. As a result of the fall in oil prices, the income of the Saudi royal court is declining. At the same time, the population is growing rapidly, which creates difficulties in maintaining the established level of well-being of the population.

In the 2010s, military pressure on Saudi Arabia from Shiite Islamist groups supported by Iran intensified. In 2013, Shiite extremists in

Saudi Arabia, the map of which is presented below, is a country in southwestern Asia, occupying about 80% of the area.The origin of its name is associated with the royal family of Saud, which founded the state and continues to be in power to this day.

general description

Saudi Arabia's area is 2.15 million square kilometers. The state borders on Kuwait, Iraq, Jordan, UAE, Qatar, Yemen and Oman. In addition, it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aqaba. Its capital is Riyadh, which is home to more than five million people. Other major cities in Saudi Arabia are Jeddah, Mecca and Medina. Their population exceeds the one million mark.

Political structure

In March 1992, the first documents were adopted, regulating the state and the basic principles of its administration. Based on them, the country of Saudi Arabia is a theocratic absolute monarchy. Its constitution is based on the Koran. The Saudi dynasty has been in power since 1932. The king has full legislative, executive and judicial powers. Its powers are only theoretically limited by local traditions and Sharia norms. The government has been functioning in its current form since 1953. It is headed by a king who determines the main directions of its activities. There is also a Council of Ministers in the country, which is entrusted with not only executive, but also legislative functions. All decisions made by this authority are approved by the decree of the king of the country of Saudi Arabia. The population of the state is obliged to comply with them. Administratively, the country is divided into thirteen provinces.

Economy

The local economy is based on free private enterprise. At the same time, one cannot fail to note the fact that control over the key ones is exercised by the government. The state boasts the largest oil reserves on the planet. It accounts for about 75% of his income. In addition, Saudi Arabia is the world leader in the export of black gold and plays a leading role in OPEC. The country also has reserves of zinc, chromium, lead, copper and

Population

The first census of local residents was carried out in 1974. From that time to the present day, the population of Saudi Arabia has almost tripled. Now the country is home to almost 30 million people. The overwhelming majority of local residents are Arabs, a significant part of whom retained a tribal organization. Now there are more than 100 tribal associations and tribes in the country. It should be noted that foreign workers account for about one fifth of the population. Based on official UN statistics, as of 1970, the infant mortality rate in the country was 204 babies for every thousand newborns. Now there has been a significant positive shift in this indicator. In particular, thanks to the improvement in the standard of living and medical care in the state, out of a thousand newborns, only 19 children die.

Language

Arabic is the official language in a country like Saudi Arabia. The population in everyday life uses mainly the Arabian dialect, which comes from El-Fushi. Within it, several dialects stand out at once, close to each other. At the same time, city dwellers and descendants of nomads speak differently. Literary and spoken languages ​​have minor differences between themselves. In a religious context, mainly the classical Arabic dialect is used. Common languages ​​among immigrants from other countries are English, Indonesian, Urdu, Tagalog, Farsi and others.

Religion

It is Saudi Arabia that is considered the center of the Islamic world. The entire population of the country professes this particular religion. According to various estimates, up to 93% of local residents are Sunnis. The rest of the representatives of Islam are mainly Shiites. As for other religions, approximately 3% of the country's inhabitants are Christians, and 0.4% are other confessions.

Education

Although higher education in the country is free, it is not compulsory. A good job and a comfortable life in Saudi Arabia are possible without him. Be that as it may, there are a number of programs operating here, the main goal of which is to reduce the level of illiteracy of local residents. Currently, there are 7 universities and 16 higher educational institutions in the country. They are all under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Higher Education. Approximately 30 thousand students study abroad every year. In the past few decades, the government has significantly increased spending on education. At the same time, the state needs a general reform in this area, which should form a new balance between modern and traditional teaching methods.

Medicine

One of the most advanced countries in the world in terms of medicine is Saudi Arabia. The population of the state has the right to receive services related to it free of charge. This applies to both residents of megalopolises and representatives of Bedouin tribes who roam the desert. Every year, the government allocates about 8% of the local budget for health care, which is simply a gigantic amount. Compulsory immunization of newborns is enshrined at the legislative level. The system of epidemiological control, which was created in 1986, made it possible to completely defeat and eliminate such terrible diseases as plague and cholera.

Demographic problems

According to research by scientists, if the current number of inhabitants in the country remains (over the past 30 years they have been about 4% of the population per year), then by 2050 the population of Saudi Arabia will reach 45 million. In other words, very soon the country's leadership will have to solve the problem associated not only with providing citizens with jobs, but also with ensuring a decent old age for the now working Saudis. This task is not so easy even for a state with such impressive oil reserves. The emergence of such problems is associated, first of all, with positive shifts in the spheres of food and medical services, as well as with the improvement of living conditions in the country.

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed and at the same time most visited states in the world. It is located on the Arabian Peninsula, where it is washed by the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea. Until recently, a predominantly religious pilgrimage developed in the kingdom, but in recent years, active work has been carried out to introduce tourist visas.

General information about Saudi Arabia

This country is an amazing combination of highly developed technology and Islamic. It is Islam that is the official religion of Saudi Arabia and has a direct impact on all aspects of its life. Even the country's constitution was written in strict accordance with the Sunnahs of holy scripture. By the way, the constitution states that the official language of Saudi Arabia is Arabic.

The area of ​​Saudi Arabia is more than 2 million square meters. km. Thanks to this, it is included in the top 20 largest countries in the world. Despite such a territory, its population density is relatively low. So, as of 2017, the population of Saudi Arabia is just over 33 million people. Of these, 55.2% are for men and 44.8% for women.

The official currency of Saudi Arabia is the Saudi riyal, or rial. The current king is depicted on the banknotes.

Saudi Arabia's ISO code is SA. This means that the country is a member of the UN organization and its specialized agencies.

Geolocation

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the largest state on the Arabian Peninsula, occupying 80% of its territory. The rest are located, Yemen, Iraq and Syria.

Due to the fact that the country occupies a border position between Africa and Eurasia, many still have difficulties in determining its location. Some tourists find it difficult to answer the question of where Saudi Arabia is located on the world map. Turning the globe, you can see that the kingdom is located neatly between the two continents. For those who do not know which mainland Saudi Arabia is located on, it will be interesting to know that this is Eurasia. The country occupies a border position between Africa and mainland Asia.

Climate and nature of Saudi Arabia

The country is located about 2000 km from the equator, but, nevertheless, its influence is very noticeable here. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is characterized by a tropical, subtropical and sharply continental climate at the same time. The average air temperature in July is + 38 ° C, and in January - + 22 ° C.

The borderline geographical position of Saudi Arabia and the proximity to the equator have become the reason that there are many deserts on its territory, which are combined into one name - the Great Deserts. Seasonal winds (samum, khamsin, shemal) and sandstorms dominate here. The average annual rainfall is 70-100 mm.

Many travelers are interested in how many rivers there are in Saudi Arabia. There are no permanent sources in the country. Rivers are formed after heavy rains and dry up after a while.

State system and symbols of Saudi Arabia

The kingdom is known not only for Muslim shrines. Until 1928, there was a tomb in Saudi Arabia, in which the first woman on Earth was supposedly buried. The religious authorities destroyed and concreted the burial. In 2015, the Ark of Gabriel was found in Saudi Arabia. When trying to excavate it, 4,000 people died. Some blame plasma emissions for this, others - the crush.

Saudi Arabia Accommodation

Until recently, the entire tourism industry in the country was focused on serving religious pilgrims. They were all focused on them and. Despite the narrow target audience, the country has a wide variety of accommodation options. The most famous hotels are:

• Radisson Blu in Riyadh;
• Raffles Makkah Palace in Mecca;
• Crowne Plaza in Jeddah;
• Mövenpick Hotel in Medina.

You can count on more or less secular conditions in Jeddah. This city of Saudi Arabia has excellent conditions for recreation on the Red Sea. The level of service here meets all European standards.

In order to develop the tourism sector in Saudi Arabia, the tallest hotel in the world, The Abraj Kudai, will soon be opened. It will consist of twelve 45-storey towers with 10,000 rooms, 70 restaurants and 5 helipads.

Saudi Arabia restaurants and cuisine

The culinary traditions of the kingdom developed under the influence of the climatic conditions and customs of Islam. For the most part, the cuisine of Saudi Arabia is similar to the cuisines of other countries in the Middle East. Her recipes are based on the use of lamb and chicken, rice and a huge amount of spices. Pork is not eaten in the country, and all other types of meat are prepared in strict accordance with halal. Tea, coffee and various sweets play an important role in local feasts.

You can appreciate the color and variety in the best restaurants:

• The Ritz-Carlton in Riyadh;
• Pullman Zamzam in Mecca;
• Le Méridien in Medina;
• Belajio in Jeddah.

In accordance with the laws of Saudi Arabia, drinking alcohol is prohibited here.

Public life

The Kingdom has 25% of the world's oil reserves, therefore it is one of the largest exporters of raw materials on the world stage. This significantly affects the standard of living in Saudi Arabia. VAT here is only 5%, and any local resident can take an absolutely interest-free loan. But the market system is deprived of a large part of the working population - women. In general, the rights of the fairer sex, or rather their absence, still excites the inhabitants of the Western world. The head of state of Saudi Arabia determines how the inhabitants of the country should look. For a long time they had to wear a black abaya, covering them from the eyes of unfamiliar men, and only in March 2018 this requirement became a thing of the past.

The country has a low crime rate. According to the customs of Saudi Arabia, the public order is maintained by representatives of the Sharia police. However, since 2016, her rights have been significantly curtailed.

The culture of Saudi Arabia has developed and continues to develop in accordance with the traditions of Islam. The construction of Christian churches, Jewish synagogues and Buddhist temples is prohibited here. Five times a day, a devout Muslim is obliged to perform namaz, to which the muezzin calls.

Saudi Arabia Transport

The country is one of the world's largest oil suppliers, which has affected all its industries. Saudi Arabia is characterized by a high level of automotive development. The total length of all its roads is almost 222,000 km.

In total, there are 208 in Saudi Arabia. Six of them have international status. These are the airports:

• King Fahd in Em-Dammam;
• King Abdulaziz in Jeddah;
• King Khalid in Riyadh;
• Prince Mohammed bin Abdulaziz in Medina;
• Al-Asa in Al-Hofuf;
• Prince Abdul Mohsin bin Abdulaziz in Yanbu.

The length of the railways of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is several hundred kilometers. A 440 km line is currently under construction to connect Mecca and Medina. Public transport in the country is underdeveloped. It is easier to get around by taxi within the cities of Saudi Arabia.

How to get to Saudi Arabia?

Until now, the country's air gates have been open only for charter flights with pilgrims. They are operated by Royal Jordanian and Qatar Airways, which fly three times a week. In addition, many airlines of the world (Lufthansa, Turkish Airlines, Alitalia, KLM, Air Canada) send regular flights here, and from 2018 it will be possible to fly to Saudi Arabia from Russia.

From Egypt, Sudan, Iran and Eritrea, you can get to the economic capital of Saudi Arabia, Jeddah, by ferries. They depart from Suez, Port Sudan, Em-Dammam and Massawa.

Saudi Arabia is connected to all neighboring states except Iraq by regular bus service. Approximately 5-7 buses per day come from, Qatar, Bahrain and Kuwait. Minibuses from Oman and Jordan also travel through the UAE.

Citizens of Russia and the CIS countries need to enter Saudi Arabia. You can get to the country with a visitor, transit, student, work, business and tourist visa. There are also such types of visas as pilgrimage (for the Hajj or Omra) and for permanent residence.

The state of Saudi Arabia was born on September 23, 1932. In 1926, Abdul al-Aziz from the Saudi family united the regions of Nejd and Hejaz and founded the Kingdom of Nejd and Hejaz, in 1932, after the conquest of Asir and the strengthening of positions in Al Hasa and Katif, the country became known as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Modern Saudi Arabia is also sometimes called the Third Saudi State, thus distinguishing it from the First and Second Saudi States, which existed from 1744 to 1813 and from 1824 to 1891, respectively.

Oil map

Saudi Arabia is a real oil barrel. The export of this raw material accounts for 90% of the country's export revenues, 75% of budget revenues and 45% of the state's GDP. Oil has become for Saudi Arabia not only the main product that boosts the country's economy, but also a serious geopolitical trump card.

Colossal oil reserves were discovered here in 1938, but due to the Second World War, large-scale development had to be postponed. The United States had its share in the Arab raw materials business since 1933; the Standard Oil Company of California operated in Saudi Arabia.

Without waiting for the end of the war, US President Franklin Roosevelt in February 1945, after the end of the Yalta Conference, met with Abdul-Aziz ibn Saud. The talks took place aboard the USS Quincy in the Suez Canal. Then the so-called "Quincy Pact" was signed, according to which the monopoly on the exploration and development of oil was transferred to the United States. Roosevelt, in turn, promised the Saudis protection from external threats.

Oil made Saudi Arabia the richest state in its region, Abdul-Aziz by 1952 had a personal fortune of about $ 200 million. The United States, in turn, received a good leverage on the oil market.

Rights of women and men

When it comes to Saudi Arabia, they always remember the harsh Sharia law. Women there are severely limited in their rights. So, in Saudi Arabia, a woman is not recommended to appear outside the house without the accompaniment of a mahram man (relative, husband), she is forbidden to communicate with other men if they are not mahram. In 2009, the brothers publicly shot two of their sisters for communicating with other men, and in 2007, the father personally executed his daughter for communicating on Facebook with a stranger.

Women in Saudi Arabia are required to wear black abayas everywhere, and in 2011, the religious police also began to require women to close their eyes in public, as they might be too sexy. Men in Saudi Arabia must defend the honor of the family and the honor of their women. There is such a concept "namus" or "sharaf", which translates as honor. Observing namus, a man can himself determine the punishment for a woman who has violated the ird - the rules of female piety.

To be fair, it must be said that segregation in Saudi Arabia extends to both women and men. Single men are restricted in their rights here no less than women. All public areas are divided into two parts - for families (read "for women") and for men. In most places, entry for single men is, in principle, forbidden, therefore, socially, they are oppressed in their rights no less than women. Women in Saudi Arabia are fighting for their rights and have already achieved success in this matter, they can even hold political positions.

Executions

The legal system of Saudi Arabia is based on Sharia law, the death penalty in the country is provided for premeditated murder, armed robbery, homosexuality, extramarital (premarital) relationships, religious apostasy, sexual assault, the creation of opposition groups to the government.

Compliance with the norms of Sharia law is controlled by the religious police - the Mutawwa, also called the Sharia guard. She reports to the Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and Refraining from Vice.

For various crimes, Sharia norms establish various punishments - from blows and stoning to cutting off the head.

The right to execute executions in Saudi Arabia is considered honorable; there are still several dynasties of executioners in the country, this skill is inherited. In 2013, Saudi Arabia faced a shortage of personnel, the number of sword-bearers is now decreasing, so the forms of execution have also changed.

Mecca and Medina

Saudi Arabia is one of the most closed countries in the world. Staying in the Muslim holy cities of Mecca and Medina for non-Muslims is strictly prohibited by law. You can get to these cities only in groups of pilgrims performing the Hajj. In history, however, there have been cases of violation of these prohibitions.

The first known non-Muslim to visit Mecca was the Italian traveler from Bologna, Ludovico de Vertema, who visited here in 1503. Another non-Muslim who visited Mecca was Sir Richard Francis Burton. In the middle of the 19th century, he performed the Hajj from Afghanistan under an assumed name.

Few facts

There are no rivers in Saudi Arabia. Water is more expensive here than gasoline. Magic is officially banned in Saudi Arabia. In Saudi Arabia there are nesting dolls for sale, but they are made in accordance with the norms - women in abayas, men in tobi and guthrie. Saudi Arabia has adopted the Islamic calendar, now it is 1436 Hijri. Favorite sport is football, the national team of the country was three times the champion of Asia. It is not so easy to obtain a visa, especially if the passport contains a note about visiting Israel.